Part 1
Four Main kinds of sentences
1. A declaratives说明的 sentence states a fact. E.g. the sun is shining today.
2. An interrogative疑问 sentence asks a question
3. An exclamatory感叹 sentence expresses a strong emotion. E.g. what a beautiful day for a picnic!
4. An imperative祈使sentence makes a request or gives an order. E.g. come with me!
Imperative and exclamatory are rare in writing.
Subject 主语
Compound subject e.g. dogs and cats Predicate 谓语
Compound subject e.g. bend 弯and sway摇动 Verb 动词
coordinating conjunction连词 E.g. and – or – but Semicolon 分号
A semicolon is used for connecting two independent clause.
A clause 从句is a group of words that includes both a subject and a verb.
Two kinds of clauses:
1. Independent clause：can stand alone as a sentence because is expresses a complete thought.
E.g. Europa is one the moons of Jupiter. 木卫二
2. Subordinate clause: can?t stand alone as a sentence because it doesn?t express a complete thought.
A subordinate clause usually start with a subordinating conjunction : If ,after, because and so on.
E.g. Because Europa has oceans filled with water, like the Earth
Type of sentence structures:
1. Simple sentence : consist of one independent clause
E.g. life may exit on Europa.
2. Compound sentence: contains two or more independent clause joined either
by a comma逗号 and a coordinating conjunction连词, or by a semicolon分号.
E.g. many astronomers believe in extraterrestrial life, but others disagree.
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两个独立的Independent clause， but 是coordinating conjunction
3. Complex sentence: contains an independent clause and one or more
subordinate clause
E.g. if extraterrestrial like is ever discovered (Subordinate clause), it will change human history (Independent clause）.
4. Compound-complex sentence contains two or more independent clauses and
one or more subordinate clauses
E.g. although no sign of life on other worlds has yet been found (Subordinate clause), the search continues (Independent clause) ,and many predict success (Independent clause)..
Grammatical errors:
A subordinate clause cannot stand alone as a sentence- that is a sentence fragment.
A run-on sentence-includes two or more independent clauses that are joined only by a comma or by nothing at all.
E.g. Visit the city science museum, you?ll see some fascinating exhibits about outer space. 在comma后加and. 或将comma 变成；
Part 2
Verbs: a verb expresses action done be or to the subject, or it express a state of being of the subject.
Nouns: a noun names a person, a place, a thing, or an idea. Common nouns: student, city, month Proper nouns: Barbara, Cleveland, May Singular Nouns: sofa, man, child, leaf Plural Nouns: sofas, men, children, leaves
Pronouns: a pronoun takes the place of a noun or a group of nouns. E.g. he, she, it which, who
Adjective: An adjective modifies a noun or a pronoun. The adjective can come after a verb of being.
Articles: a article introduces a noun.
E.g. I would like an apple for lunch. An =indefinite article I would like the apple for lunch. The =definite article. Adverbs
An adverb modifies a verb, or an adjective, or another adverb. Adverbs often end in –ly, but not always. Prepositions
Prepositions are always followed by a noun or a pronoun (most often a noun)-that combination of words is called a prepositional phrase.
E.g.in my house, for my sister, below the equator, through the tunnel, according
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to, instead of, prior to Conjunction
Coordinating conjunctions: And, but, or, nor, for, yet, so. Subordinating conjunctions： If Difference：
A coordinating conjunction joins two things that are more or less equal in importance. A subordinating conjunction joins and independent clause and a clause which is subordinate.
Correlative conjunctions: Correlative conjunctions come in pairs. Both… and, either…or, not only…but also Interjections
An interjection expresses a strong emotion, and is not grammatically connected to the rest of the sentence. Gosh! Yikes! Hooray!
Part 3
Three main verbs：
1. Transitive verb expresses action that passes from the subject of the verb to an object of the verb.
E.g. Omar typed the letter.
2. Intransitive verbs express action that does not have an object. E.g. Elliot slept. Jacques laughed.
3. Linking verbs expresses a state of being. It links the subject to another word in the sentence. E.g. be, act ,appear ,seem ,taste ,turn Direct object:
E.g. Derek applauded the band.
Dawn bought a blouse and a pair of shoes. Indirect object: E.g. Andrea told her mother the good news.
Object of a prepositional phase
E.g. Rey told a story to his little sister.
Subject complements
A subject a complement is a noun, a pronoun, or an adjective that follow a linking verb and refers to, describes, or modifies the subject. 1. A noun as a subject complements
E.g. Virginia Woolf Was a novelist. 2. A pronoun as a subject complements
E.g. The world?s greatest bullfighter is he. 是he 不是him 语法。当作pronoun时，要用he.
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E.g. who?s there? It?s I.
3. An adjective as a subject complement E.g. Sandra looked happy.
4. Compound subject complements
E.g. My favorite sports teams are the Denver Nuggets and the Colorado Rockies.
Part 4
Four principal parts of any verb : 1. The infinitive 不定式
2. The present participle 现在分词 3. The past 过去式
4. The past participle过去分词 Six most important verb tenses:
1. Present tense: describes action happen now
2. Past tense: describes action happening in the past. 3. Future tense
4. Present perfect tense: happening in the past up to the present.
5. Past perfect tense: happening in the past before some other past-tense action.
E.g. he had cooked dinner when suddenly he doorbell rang.在铃响之前，他在做饭。
6. Future perfect tense: happening in the future before some other future-tense
action.
Using verb tenses correctly:
1. Before I cooked dinner, I had walked the supermarket.
First, I had walked to the supermarket. Second, I cooked dinner.
2. After Miguel sings a song, Annalisa will dance for us.
First, Miguel sings.
Second, Annalisa will dance.
3. You will complete your studies next spring; by then, you will have attended
over ninety hours of classes.(in the future ,prior to a future tense event=future perfect tense) Past tense Past perfect tense Present Future perfect tense Future tense
More examples:
1. When she applied for her job at the airline, Diane stated that she had
served in the U.S. Air Force.
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The irregular verbs：（ no rules）
Common mistakes:
Henri brought his girlfriend to the movies. Maria has driven a taxi for the past two months.
By tonight, I will have done all the research for my report. 1. Lie and lay
Lie is an irregular verb that is intransitive不及物, it takes no direct object. Lay is an irregular verb that is transitive，it always takes a direct object.
The infinitive The present participle The past The past participle Example Lie躺/说谎 Lie lying lay lain I will lie on the sofa. Lay放置 lay Laying Laid Laid I will lay my books on the table The subjunctive mood虚拟语气
1. To express a formal request or recommendation in a clause beginning with the word “that”. The subjunctive mood of the verb is formed the same way as the infinitive or basic form of the verb.
E.g. she asked that the workers complete their reports by the end of the day.
2. To describe an unreal or doubtful condition .often, this is in a clause beginning with the word” if “. In the present, the subjunctive mood verb looks the same as the past tense of the verb. In the past, the subjunctive mood verb looks the same as the past perfect tense of the verb.
E.g. If I had a million dollars, I would travel around the world. If he had left the starting block faster, he would have won the race.
Part 5
Kinds of Pronoun
1. Personal pronouns refer to the person speaking the person being spoken to, or
the person or thing being spoken about. Pronouns can be either singular or plural. “You “are singular and plural. Personal pronouns always take one of three cases: 1.1 The subjective case
I, you, he, she, it we, they 1.2 The objective case
Me, you, him, her, it, us, them 1.3 The possessive case
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