陕西理工学院毕业设计
the box and Tb of the box itself. The inputs to the system are the power output q(t) of the heater and the ambient temperature T￥. ma and mb are the masses of the air and the box, respectively, and Ca and Cb their specific heats. μ1 and μ2 are heat transfer coefficients from the air to the box and from the box to the external world, respectively.
It’s not hard to show that the (linearized) state equationscorresponding to Figure 4 Taking Laplace transforms of (1) and (2) and solving for Ta(s), which is the output of interest, gives the following open-loop model of the thermal system:
where K is a constant and D(s) is a second-order polynomial.K, tz, and the coefficients of D(s) are functions of the variousparameters appearing in (1) and (2).Of course the various parameters in (1) and (2) are completely unknown, but it’s not hard to show that, regardless of their values, D(s) has two real zeros. Therefore the main transfer function of interest (which is the one from Q(s), since we’ll assume constant ambient temperature) can be writtenMoreover, it’s not too hard to show that 1=tp1 <1=tz <1=tp2, i.e., that the zero lies between the two poles. Both of these are excellent exercises for the student, and the result is the openloop pole-zero diagram of Figure 5.
Obtaining a complete thermal model, then, is reduced to identifying the constant K and the three
unknown time constants in (3). Four unknown parameters is quite a few, but simple experiments show that 1=tp1 _ 1=tz;1=tp2 so that tz;tp2 _ 0 are good approximations. Thus the open-loop system is essentially first-order and can therefore be written where the subscript p1 has been dropped .
Simple open-loop step response experiments show that,for a wide range of initial temperatures and heat inputs, K _0:14 _=W and t _ 295 s.1 4.2 Control System Design
Using the first-order model of (4) for the open-loop transfer function Gaq(s) and assuming for the moment that linear control of the heater power output q(t) is possible, the block diagram of Figure 6 represents the closed-loop system. Td(s) is the desired, or set-point, temperature,C(s) is the compensator transfer function, and Q(s) is the heater output in watts.
Given this simple situation, introductory linear control design tools such as the root locus method can be used to arrive at a C(s) which meets the step response requirements on rise time, steady-state error, and overshoot specified in Table 1. The upshot, of course, is that a proportional controller with sufficient gain can meet all specifications. Overshoot is impossible, and increasing gains decreases both steady-state error and rise time.
Unfortunately, sufficient gain to meet the specifications may require larger heat outputs than the heater is capable of producing. This was indeed the case for this system, and the result is that the rise time
specification cannot be met. It is quite revealing to the student how useful such an oversimplified model, carefully arrived at, can be in determining overall performance limitations. 4.3 Simulation Model
Gross performance and its limitations can be determined using the simplified model of Figure 6, but there are a number of other aspects of the closed-loop system whose effects on performance are not so simply modeled. Chief among these are
·quantization error in analog-to-digital conversion of the measured temperature and · the use of PWM to control the heater.
Both of these are nonlinear and time-varying effects, and the only practical way to study them is through simulation (or experiment, of course).
Figure 7 shows a SimulinkTM block diagram of the closed-loop system which incorporates these effects. A/D converter quantization and saturation are modeled using standard Simulink quantizer and saturation blocks. Modeling PWM is more complicated and requires a custom S-function to represent it.
This simulation model has proven particularly useful in gauging the effects of varying the basic PWM
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parameters and hence selecting them appropriately. (I.e., the longer the period, the larger the temperature error PWM introduces. On the other hand, a long period is desirable to avoid excessive relay ―chatter,‖ among other things.) PWM is often difficult for students to grasp, and the simulation model allows an exploration of its operation and effects which is quite revealing. 4.4 The Microcontroller
Simple closed-loop control, keypad reading, and display control are some of the classic applications of microcontrollers, and this project incorporates all three. It is therefore an excellent all-around exercise in microcontroller applications. In addition, because the project is to produce an actual packaged prototype, it won’t do to use a simple evaluation board with the I/O pins jumpered to the target system. Instead, it’s necessary to develop a complete embedded application. This entails the choice of an appropriate part from the broad range offered in a typical microcontroller family and learning to use a fairly sophisticated
development environment. Finally, a custom printed-circuit board for the microcontroller and peripherals must be designed and fabricated.
Microcontroller Selection. In view of existing local expertise, the Motorola line of microcontrollers was chosen for this project. Still, this does not narrow the choice down much. A fairly disciplined study of system requirements is necessary to specify which microcontroller, out of scores of variants, is required for the job. This is difficult for students, as they generally lack the experience and intuition needed as well as the perseverance to wade through manufacturers’ selection guides.
Part of the problem is in choosing methods for interfacing the various peripherals (e.g., what kind of display driver should be used?). A study of relevant Motorola application notes [2, 3, 4] proved very helpful in understandingwhat basic approaches are available, and what microcontroller/peripheral combinations should be considered.
The MC68HC705B16 was finally chosen on the basis of its availableA/D inputs and PWMoutputs as well as 24 digital I/O lines. In retrospect this is probably overkill, as only one A/D channel, one PWM channel, and 11 I/O pins are actually required (see Figure 3). The decision was made to err on the safe side because a complete development system specific to the chosen part was necessary, and the project budget did not permit a second such system to be purchased should the first prove inadequate.
Microcontroller Application Development. Breadboarding of the peripheral hardware, development of microcontroller software, and final debugging and testing of a custom printed-circuit board for the microcontroller and peripherals all require a development environment of some kind. The choice of a development environment, like that of the microcontroller itself, can be bewildering and requires some faculty expertise. Motorola makes three grades of development environment ranging from simple
evaluation boards (at around $100) to full-blown real-time in-circuit emulators (at more like $7500). The middle option was chosen for this project: the MMEVS, which consists of _ a platform board (which supports all 6805-family parts), _ an emulator module (specific to B-series parts), and _ a cable and target head adapter (package-specific). Overall, the system costs about $900 and provides, with some limitations, in-circuit emulation capability. It also comes with the simple but sufficient software development environment RAPID [5].
Students find learning to use this type of system challenging, but the experience they gain in
real-world microcontroller application development greatly exceeds the typical first-course experience using simple evaluation boards.
Printed-Circuit Board. The layout of a simple (though definitely not trivial) printed-circuit board is another practical learning opportunity presented by this project. The final board layout, with package outlines, is shown (at 50% of actual size) in Figure 8. The relative simplicity of the circuit makes manual placement and routing practical—in fact, it likely gives better results than automatic in an application like
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this—and the student is therefore exposed to fundamental issues of printed-circuit layout and basic design rules. The layout software used was the very nice package pcb,2 and the board was fabricated in-house with the aid of our staff electronics technician. 5 Conclusion
The aim of this paper has been to describe an interdisciplinary, undergraduate engineering design project: a microcontroller- based temperature control system with digital set-point entry and
set-point/actual temperature display. A particular design of such a system has been described, and a number of design issues which arise—from a variety of engineering disciplines—have been discussed. Resolution of these issues generally requires knowledge beyond that acquired in introductory courses, but realistically accessible to advance undergraduate students, especially with the advice and supervision of faculty.
Desirable features of the problem, from a pedagogical viewpoint, include the use of a microcontroller with simple peripherals, the opportunity to usefully apply introductorylevel modeling of physical systems and design of closed-loop controls, and the need for relatively simple experimentation (for model validation) and simulation (for detailed performance prediction). Also desirable are some of the technologyrelated aspects of the problem including practical use of resistive heaters and temperature sensors (requiring knowledge of PWM and calibration techniques, respectively), microcontroller selection and use of development systems, and printedcircuit design.
Acknowledgements
The author would like to acknowledge the hard work, dedication, and ability shown by the students involved in this project: Mark Langsdorf, Matt Rall, PamRinehart, and David Schuchmann. It is their project, and credit for its success belongs to them.
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附录 B 中文译文
单片机温度控制：一个跨学科的本科生工程设计项目
JamesS.McDonald
工程科学系三一大学德克萨斯州
圣安东尼奥市78212
本文所描述的是作者领导由四个三一大学高年级学生组成的团队进行的一个跨学科工程项目的设计。该项目的目标是设计一个气室内温度控制系统。该系统的要求是：当实际气室的温度阶跃响应时，规定范围内的温度进入气室后，稳定时的温度误差和超调量必须少于一个绝对温度。本组学生开发设计是基于摩托罗拉MC68HC05系列单片机。该问题的教学价值也通过某些步骤的关键描述在本文说明。研究结果表明，解决该方案需要具有广泛的工程学科知识，包括相关电子、机械和控制系统工程的知识。 1 引言
该设计项目来自一个实际应用问题，一个关于显微镜载玻片干燥剂温控器——欧米茄CN-390温度控制器，而这个设计的目标是研发一个自定义的通用温度控制系统取代欧米茄系统、一个以更低的成本实现相同功能的自定义控制器，就像欧米茄系统一样，并不需要能够全方位的处理各种问题。
该载玻片干燥机的机械布局如图1所示。干燥机的主体是一个足够大的绝缘充气室，里面依次存放着薄纸包着的石蜡。为了使石蜡保持适当稳定性，载玻片气室的温度必须维持稳定。第二个气筒（电子围绕元件）设有一个电阻加热器、一个温度控制器以及一个安装在干燥机上的风扇，是为了把风吹过加热器，把热量带到载玻片气室。 自1996-97学年来，本文作者带领四位三一大学工程科学系的高年级学生开展此项目的研究。本文的目的说明了提出一些问题并详细阐述学生的一些解决方案，而且讨论了这种类型的跨学科设计项目在教学方面应用的问题。这份学生报告曾经在1997年全国本科毕业生研讨会上提出过并讨论过。第2节给出该设计的更多详细情况，包括性能规格。第3节具体 学生的设计。第4节是论文的主体，讨论该设计在教学应用方面的实施问题。最后，第5节全文总结。 2 问题阐述
该项目基本的思想是设计一个自定义温度控制系统来取代相关的欧米茄CN-390温度控制器。温度时通常保持在一个稳定的常数，但重要的是阶跃变化可以被“合理”的跟踪。因此主要要求如下：
·可以对空气室的温度进行设定， ·同时显示设定值和实际温度，
·以及在设定温度值情况下，可接受范围内的跟踪阶跃变化，稳态误差，超调量。
尽管表1部分说明并不明确，但是它清楚的反映了人们对数字显示器在设定值和实际温度的要求和温度应该通过数值输入来设定（而不是，通过电位器设置）。 3.系统设计
根据微控设计，数字温度显示和单点输入的要求可能是最合适的。图2为学生的设计框图。 摩托罗拉MC68HC705B16（简称6805），是系统的核心。它通过一个简单的4键小键盘对温度进行设定，同时使用两个显示驱动控制7段LED数码管来显示定值和气室温度的测量值。所有这些，输入和输出信号与6805的并行口相连。气室的温度值使用预校准热敏电阻测量，并通过6805的数模转换输入。最后，6085的脉冲宽度调制（PWM）输出用来驱动一个继电器，以控制线性电阻加热器的闭合和断开。
图3更详细的显示了6805的接口和电子器件。使用暴风3K041103型号四键键盘，通过PA0-PA3端口进行数据输入。其中一个重要的功能是进行模式切换。两种模式：固定模式和运行模式。在固定模式下，其他两个键用于设定温度，一个增加，一个减少，第四个按键暂无作用。LED显示屏由
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哈里斯半导体ICM7212进行驱动，通过PB0-PB6端口与芯片相连，作为输出。热敏电阻由电压分频器驱动，通过AN0针脚（八个模拟输入端口中的一个）相连。最后，PLMA针脚（两个PWM输出端口中的一个）驱动加热继电器。
单片机原理图是关于用软件实现温度控制算法、保持温度显示以及改变键盘输入响应，这将不会在本文详细讨论，因为这并不是本文的重点，也没有编译完成。软件部分还没有确定控制算法，但很可能是一个简单的比例控制，比PID算法简单。一些控制设计的问题将在第四节讨论。 4 设计过程
虽然该项目的本质是建立一个恒温器，但它有许多很好的契机可以供教学借鉴。高级工程本科教育的知识只是能够让学生们具有解决问题的能力。然而，很多情况下，实际情况却和理论有些不同。不过，这些不是问题，参与这个项目的设计，将获得很多设计方面的宝贵经验。本节的其余部分着眼于其他的几个方面：4.1节讨论系统的一些特征，简化系统热性能的数学模型，以及一些简单理论的证明。4.2节介绍确定实际控制算法。4.3节指出控制设计程序的一些不足，并通过模拟环境，指出怎样克服问题。4.4节给出单片机的一些设计相关概述，以及出现问题和值得借鉴之处。 4.1数学模型
集总元件热系统符合线性控制，适用于载玻片干燥机的问题。图4显示了二阶集总元件热量模型的载玻片干燥机。状态变量是温度，Ta是箱内空气的温度，Tb是箱子本身的温度。该系统输入功率等于q(t)的热量和环境温度T的和。ma，mb分别对应空气和箱子的质量。
Ca和Cb则分别是其对应热量。m1和m2分别是空气与箱子间以及箱子与外界间的传热系数。
拉普拉斯变换(1)和(2)等式，并整理Ta(s)。有趣的是，可以推出一个开环的热系统方程。 其中K是一个常数，D(s)是一个二阶的多项式。K,tz,以及系数D(s)和在(1)和(2)等式中出现的系数功能相近。当然，在(1)和(2)等式中各种参数在未知的情况下，不难证明D(s)与其他参数的值无关，具有两个零点。因此传递函数可以写成（我们假设环境温度为常数）
此外,可以推出1/tp1<1/tz<1/tp2,即，零点在两极之间。开环零极点如图5所示。
为了获取完整的热模型，从(3)式中除去常数K和3个未知的时间常数。四个未知参数并不少，但由简单的实验表明，1/tp1<<1/tz，1/tp2统基本上是一阶函数，且tz,tp2近似为0。
过初始温度和热量值大范围内的设置，简单的开环阶跃响应实验结果表明，K≈0.14o/W，τ≈295S。
4.2 控制系统设计
使用(4)式的一阶开环传递函数Gaq(s)，并且假定加热器的输出函数q(t)为线性，图6是系统框图代表闭环系统。Td(s)是设定温度的函数，C(s)是传递函数，Q(s)是热量输出，单位是瓦特。
图6简化的闭环系统框图鉴于这种简单情况，前面所指的线性控制设置，例如，根轨迹法设计法可以使C(s)中符合要求的阶跃响应对应的上升时间、稳态误差和超调量符合表格1所示。当然，一个有足够增益的比例控制器就可以满足各种要求。超调量改变是不可能既增加增益又减少稳态误差和上升时间的。不幸的是，如果要获得足够增益，需要生产超过实际生产能力的大容量加热器。这是本系统的实际问题，将会致使上升时间不符合要求。这要求学生们如何利用这个经过仔细计算的简化模型，在整体性能上达到最佳控制。 4.3 模型仿真
该设计的大部分性能和限制功能，应该可以使用图6简化模型来完成。但有一个数据对闭环系统其他方面的影响并非能够如此简单的仿真。其中最主要的是：
·量化误差的模拟和数模转换， ·测量温度和使用PWM控制加热器。
这两种都是非线性的、时变的。所以唯一切实可行的方法就是通过仿真（或实验）加以研究。 图7Simulink仿真闭环系统框图显示了Simulink情况下的闭环系统框图，其中包括A/D转换和使用标准Simulink量化饱和块建立的饱和量化模型。建立PWM调制模型比较复杂，需要一个自定义的S函数来表示。
这种仿真模型已经被证明在衡量不同的PWM基本参数对设计的影响以及适当参数的选择中特别
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