第一单元What is linguistics? 什么是语言学？Linguistics is generally defined as the scientific study of language. It studies not any particular language, but languages in general.
The scope of linguistics 语言学研究的范畴
Phonetics语音学\\Phonology音系学\\Morphology形态学\\Syntax句法学\\Semantics语义学\\Pragmatics语用学\\Sociolinguistics社会语言学\\Psycholinguistics心理语言学\\Applied linguistics应用语言学
Phonetics语音学：the study of sounds used in linguistic communication led to the establishment of a branch of linguistics called phonetics
Phonology音系学:as linguists became interested in how sounds put together and used to convey meaning in communication ,they developed another branch of study related to sounds called phonology.
Morphology形态学:the study of the way in which these symbols are arranged form words has constituted the branch of study called morphology.
Syntax句法学:the combination of these words to form permissible sentences in languages is governed by rules ,the study of these rules constitutes a major branch of linguistics studies Semantics语义学:the study of meaning was gradually developed and became known as semantics
Pragmatics语用学:when the study of meaning is conducted,not in isolaion,but in the context of use,it becomes another branch of linguistic study called pragmatics
Sociolinguistics社会语言学:the study of all these social aspects of language and its relation with society form the core of the branch called sociolinguistics
Psycholinguistics心理语言学: Psycholinguistics relates the study of language to psychology
\\Applied linguistics应用语言学:findings in linguistic studies can often be applied to the solution of such practical problems as the recovery
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of speech ability.the study of such applications is generally known as applied linguistics
Other related branchs include anthropological linguistics,neurological linguistics,mathematical linguistics,and computational linguistics.
Some important distinctions in linguistics。人类学/神经语言学/数理语言学/计算语言学
1 .Prescriptive vs Descriptive规定性与描述性
Descriptive：a linguistic study describes and analyzes the language people actually use.
Prescriptive: it aims lay down rules for ―correct‖ behavior.
Modern linguistics is descriptive; its investigations are based on authentic, and mainly spoken data. Traditional grammar is prescriptive; it is based on ―high‖ written language
2.Synchronic vs. diachronic 共时性与历史性
The description of a language at some point in time is a synchronic study
The description of a language as it changes through time is a diachronic study
In modern linguistics, synchronic study seems to enjoy priority over diachronic study.
3.Speech and writing 口头语与书面语
Speech enjoys priority over writing in modern linguistics study for the following reasons:
(1) speech precedes writing in terms of evolution (2) a large amount of communication is carried out in speech tan in writing
(3) speech is the form in which infants acquire their native language
4.Language and parole 语言与言语
Language refers to the abstract linguistic system shared by all the members of a speech community Parole refers to the realization of language in actual use
5.Competence and performance 能力与运用
Chomsky defines competence as the ideal users’ knowledge of the rules of his language
Performance: the actual realization of this knowledge in linguistic communication
What is language? 什么是语言？Language is a system of arbitrary vocal symbols used for human communication
Characteristics of language: 语言的特性 Language is a rule-governed system
Language is basically vocal
Language is arbitrary (the fact different languages have different words for the same object is a good illustration of the arbitrary nature of language. This conventional nature of language is well illustrated by a famous quotation from Shakespeare’s play ―Romeo and Juliet‖: ―A rose by any other name would smell as sweet.‖) Language is used for human communication
Design features of language 语言的识别特征
American linguist Charles Hockett specified 12 design features:
1) arbitrariness 随意性 2) productivity 创造性 3) duality 双重性
4) displacement不受时空限制性 5) cultural transmission 文化传递性
单元二Two major media of communication: speech and writing
The limited range of sounds which are meaningful in human communication and are of interest to linguistic studies are the phonic medium of language. 用于人类语言交际的声音称为语音，这些数目有限的一组语音构成了语言的声音媒介。
Phonetics语音学: is defined as the study of the phonic medium of language; it is concerned with all the sounds that occur in the world’s language. Three branches of phonetics : articulatory phonetics 发音语音学（most highly developed）, auditory phonetics 听觉语音学and acoustic phonetics 声学语音学
Articulation phonetics(发音语音学):How a speaker uses his speech organs articulate the sounds. Auditory phonetics（听觉语音学）:How a hearer perceives the sounds.
Acoustic(声学语音学）:How the sounds are transmitter.
Organs of speech 发音器官
The articulatory apparatus of a human being are contained in three important areas or cavities: The pharyngeal cavity咽腔----the throat
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The oral cavity口腔----the mouth The nasal cavity 鼻腔---the nose
Vibration of the vocal cords (声带) results in a quality of speech sounds called ―voicing‖ 浊音，which is a feature of all vowels 元音 and some consonants 辅音。
单词补充：
01) velum: The soft palate. 软腭
02) uvula: A small, conical, fleshy mass of tissue suspended from the center of the soft palate. 小舌，悬雍垂悬垂在软腭中央的小的圆锥状肉块 03) larynx: n. 喉 04) vocal cord: 声带
05) membrane: n. A thin, pliable layer of tissue covering surfaces or separating or connecting regions, structures, or organs of an animal or a plant. 膜薄而柔软的组织层，覆盖在表面或分割连接各种区域、结构或动植物器官 06) the soft palate: 软腭 07) the hard palate: 硬腭 08) the teeth ridge: 齿龈
09) alveolus: A tooth socket in the jawbone 牙槽颚骨处的牙床
10) the teeth: 牙齿 11) the lips: 上下唇
12) blade of tongue: 舌面 13) back of tongue: 舌根 14) pharyngeal cavity: 咽腔 15) nasal cavity: 鼻腔
16) velar: Articulated with the back of the tongue touching or near the soft palate, as (g) in good and (k) in cup.软腭音的用舌头后部挂触或靠近软腭清楚地发音的，如在 good中的(g)以及在 cup中的(k)
17) the tip of the tongue: 舌尖 18) the upper front teeth: 上齿 19) the roof of the mouth: 上颚 20) the lower lip: 下唇
International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA)
The vowels (monophthongs and diphthongs) 元音（单元音&双元音） The consonants辅音 Broad transcription: transcription with
letter-symbols only. (in dictionaries and teaching textbooks)
用一个符号来表示一个语音的标音方式叫做宽式标音法，这种音标法常见于词典和教科书。
Narrow transcription: the transcription with diacritics.
但实际上， 同一语音在不通的语音环境中的发音不尽相同， 比如Pit和spit中的/P/音发音就不一样。
在宽式标音的基础上， 再用变音符号表示同一语音在不同的语音环境下不同发音的标音法叫做窄式标音法。
Classification of English speech sounds英语语音的分类vowels and constants
The basic difference between a vowel and a constant is that in the pronunciation of the former the air that comes from the lungs meets with no obstruction of any kind in the throat, the nose, or the mouth, while in that of the latter it is obstructed in one way or another.
Consonants: the sounds in the production of which there is an obstruction of the air steam at some point of the vocal tract.
Vowels: the sounds in the production of which no articulators come very close together and the air stream passes through the vocal tract without obstruction.
Classification of English constants
Classification in two ways:in terms of manner of articulation :stops ,fricatives, affricates ,nasals ,liquids ,glides.
:in terms of place of articulation:bilabial,labiodental,dental,alveolar,palatal,velar,glottal.
Classification of English vowels英语元音的分类 :the position of the tongue in the mouth舌位高低(classification of 3 groups:front,central,and back) :the openness of the mouth,口的张开程度(classification of 4 groups:close vowels,semi-close vowels,semi-open vowels,and open vowels)
:the shape of the lips唇的形状(rounded or not rounded)
:length of the vowels元音的长度(long vowels and short vowels,corresponding to the distinction of tense and lax vowels)
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Phonology and phonetics
音系学和语音学both are the studies of speech sounds.
Phonetics is of a general nature; it is interested in all the speech sounds used in all human languages. 语音学研究的是人类所有语言的语音，旨在对语音进行描述和分类。
Phonology is interested in the system of sounds of a particular language; it aims to discover how speech sounds in a language form patterns and how these sounds are used to convey meaning in linguistic communication.
音系学研究的重点是特定语言的语音体系，语音表达意义作用。
Phone，phoneme and allophone语音，音位，音位变体
Phones, which can be simply defined as the speech sounds we use when speaking a language. Phonology is concerned with the speech sounds which distinguish meaning.
The different which can represent a phoneme in different phonetic environments are called the allophones of that phoneme.
Phonemic contrast, complementary distribution, and minimal pair
音位对立，互补分布，最小对立对
rope and robe that /P/ and /b/ can occur in the same environments and they distinguish meaning; therefore they are in phonemic contrast.
可以出现在不同语音组合中的同一为止， 产生意义差别。
/P/ and /Ph/ these two allophones of the same phoneme are said to be in complementary distribution.
When two different forms are identical in every way except for one sound segment which occurs in the same place in the strings, the two words are said to form a minimal pair. [pen] and [ben]
最小对立对指出现在同一位置上的一个音之外其余都相同的两个语音组合。
Some rules in phonology几条音系规则
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Sequential rules 序列规则 ：blik, klib , bilk, kilb is
possible. But lbki, ilbk, bkil , ilkb not possible. Assimilation rules 同化规则（one sound to another by “copying” a feature of a sequential phoneme, thus make the two phones similar）
Deletion rule 省略规则（it tell us when a sound is to be deleted although it is orthographically represented.）Sign, design, there is no {g} sound./Signature, designation the {g} is pronounced./ Delete a [g] when it occurs before a final nasal constant.
Suprasegmental features: the phonemic features that occur above the level of the segments .切分即单音层面以上的音系特征。
the main suprasegmental features are: stress, tone, intonation. 超切分特征――重音， 声调，语调
第三单元Morphology is a branch of grammar which studies the internal structure of words and the rules by which words are formed. It is divided into two sub-branches: inflectional morphology and lexical or derivational morphology.
形态学研究单词的内部结构以及构词规则， 有屈折形态学和词汇形态学两大分支
Morpheme:the smallest meaningful unit of language.语素：语言最小的意义单位
Free Morpheme: A free morpheme is one that can stand by itself. (independent) Free morphemes: are independent units of meaning and can be used freely all by themselves. For example: boy. Bound Morpheme: A bound morpheme is one that cannot stand by itself.粘着语素必须和其他语素结合成单词can not be used independently but have to be combined with other morphemes, either free or bound, to form a word.
Roots: A root is often seen as a part of a word, it can never stand by itself although it bears clear, definite meaning; it must be combined with another root or an affix to form a word. Such roots are numerous in English for example: \―bears the meaning of ―the earth‖. When it combines with another root ―-ology‖meaning ―a branch of
learning‖, we got the word ―geology‖ which means ―the study of the earth’s structure
Bound Morpheme includes two types: (1) root (2)Affix(词缀)
1)Inflectional affixes (屈折词缀)(inflectional morphemes): Inflectional affixes: manifest various grammatical relations or grammatical categories such as number, tense, degree, and case.
affixes attached to the end of words to indicate grammatical relationships are inflectional
2)Derivational affixes(派生词缀) Derivational affixes: are added to an existing form to create a word. Such a way of word-formation is called derivation and the new word formed by derivation is called a derivative.
A) prefix: A prefix comes before words.
B)suffix： that is added to the stem；they modify the meaning of the original word and in many cases change its part of speech.
Root and stem（词根和词干）(本书未涉及) 1) Root 2) Stem
The differences between root and stem:
A root is the basic form of a word which cannot be further analyzed without total loss of identity. A stem is the surplus part after the cutting of inflectional morpheme in a word with inflectional morphemes,can be further analyzed, it sometimes could be a root.
Individualistic Undesirables
Individualist (stem) undesirable (stem) Individual (stem) desirable (stem) dividual (stem) desire (root, stem) divide(root, stem)
Affixation词缀法（Derivation派生法）：adding word-formation or derivational affixes to stem. Prefixation前缀@：It's the formation of new words by adding a prefixes to stems.
Prefixes occur at the beginning of a word, modify the meaning of the stem, but usually do not change the part of speech of the original word. Suffixes at the end of a word, are added to the
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end of stems. They modify the meaning of the original word and in many cases change its part of speech.
Compounding复合法 （also called composition） Compounding: is the formation of new words by joining two or more stems .Compounding is popular and important way of forming new words in English. In terms of morphemic analysis, derivation can be viewed ad the addition of affixes to stems to form new words, and compounding the combination of two or sometimes more than two words to create new words.
Features of compounds
1.orthographically(拼写特征): a compound can be written as one with or without a hyphen, or as two separate words. For example: armchair, follow-up, thunder bird.
2.syntactically(句法特征): the part of speech of the compound is generally determined by the part of speech of the second element. For example: ice-cold (adj.) greenhouse (noun).
3.sematically（语意特征）: the meaning of a compound is often idiomatic, not always being the sum total of the meanings of the meanings of its components. For example: a blackleg is not a leg that is black, it means cheater
4.phonetically（语音特征）: the stress of a compound always falls on the first element, while the second element receives secondary stress.
单元四Syntax is a subfield of linguistics that studies the sentence structure of language.
As a major component of grammar, syntax consists of a set of abstract rules that allow words to be combined with other words to form grammatical sentences.
句法是一个由一套数量有限的抽象规则组成的系统。
Normally a sentence consists of at least a subject and its predicate which contains a finite verb or a verb phrase.
句子通常由主语和谓语两大部分构成。 谓语通常由限定动词或动词词组构成。