(4) phonology音系学/音位学 It aims to discover how speech sounds in a language form patterns and how these sounds are used to convey meaning in linguistic communication. 1) phone, phoneme, allophone 1. phone音素
? A phone is a phonetic unit. The speech sounds we hear and produce during linguistic communication are all
phones. leaf [li:f]---[l, i:, f] feel[fi:l]---[f, i:, ]
? But a phone does not necessarily distinguish meaning. [bi:]---[p?i:] [t?i:]---[mi:] [p?it]---[tip?] [li:f]---[fi: ?] 2. phoneme音位
? A phoneme is a phonological unit; it is a unit that is of distinctive value.
? It is an abstract unit. It is not any particular sound, but rather it is represented or realized by a certain phone
in a certain phonetic context. [p? ] in [pit] [l] in [li:f] /p/ [p=] in [spit] /l/ [?] in [fi:l] [ p?] in [tip] 3. allophone音位变体
? The different phones which can represent a phoneme in different phonetic environments are called the
allophones of that phoneme.
? Distinctive features区别性的特征 The features that a phoneme possesses, making it different from other phonemes, are its distinctive features. [men], [pen], [ben], [ten], [ren], [ken] Binary features: [+consonantal] [-consonantal] [+nasal] [-nasal] [+voiced] [-voiced]
2) phonemic contrast音位对立
? Two distinctive phonemes are said to form a phonemic contrast. e.g. /p/ --- /b/ /i:/ --- /e/ /t/ --- /i/
3) complementary distribution互补分布
? Allophones of the same phoneme do not distinguish meaning, but complement each other in distribution. e.g. clear [l] --- dark [? ] aspirated [p? ] --- unaspirated [p=] 4) minimal pair最小对立体
? When two different forms are identical in every way except for one sound segment which occurs in the same
place in the strings, the two sound combinations are said to form a minimal pair. [kit]---[git] [ket]---[kit] [ket]---[ked] beat --- bit bit --- bet bet --- bat bat --- buthut --- heart heart --- hot pot --- port girl --- gale tale --- tile tone --- town how --- here here --- hair Judge whether the following examples are minimal pairs or not. [ted]—[det] [i:p]---[it] [ilp]---[bil]
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thing---think fear---pear probe---prove real---rear keys---geese angel---anger 5) some rules of phonology
1. sequential rules --- rules that govern the combination of sounds in a particular language /b/ /l/ /k/ /i/
? If three consonants should cluster together at the beginning of a word, the combination should obey the
following three rules:
(1)The first phoneme must be /s/
(2)The second phoneme must be /p/ or /t/ or /k/ (3)The third phoneme must be /l/ or /r/ or /w/ 2. deletion rule sign---signature design---designation paradigm---paradigmatic 3. assimilation rule同化规则 The assimilation rule assimilates one sound to another by ―copying‖ a feature of a sequential phoneme, thus making the two phones similar. input---[m] incorrect---[?] indiscreet---[n] bean---nasalized [i:] team---nasalized [i:] I can make it.---[m] I can go there with you.---[?] nasalization: e.g. can, tan dentalization: e.g. tenth, ninth velarization: e.g. sink, mink
devoicing: five past, love to, has to, as can be shown, edge to edge 6) suprasegmental features超切分特征 1. syllable音节 a unit of speech sounds consisting of a vowel or a vowel with one/more than one consonant ? A syllable consists of three parts:/men/ the onset节首: [m] the peak节峰 : [e] the coda节尾 : [n]
? The peak is usually formed by a vowel.
? A syllable must contain a peak but onset and coda may be absent from it. syllabic --- (of a consonant) making a syllable of its own without a vowel open syllable --- a syllable without a coda, i.e. a syllable ending in a vowel closed syllable --- a syllable with a coda, i.e. arrested by a consonant
? Each syllable has one and only one peak. When there‘re two vowels in a word, they must be separated into
two syllables. But there is no general restriction on the number of consonants in a syllable. fast [fa:st] chaos ['kei?s] sixths [siks?s] ? Maximal Onset Principle: When there is a choice as to where to place a consonant, it is put into the onset rather than the coda. ['pu:ti] ['k?ntri] [?'gen] ['litl] ['intristid]
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2. stress
A. word stress:
? three types of stress: primary, secondary, zero stress 'interested inter'national un'skilled ? greenhouse vs. green house hotdog vs. hot dog
? sleeping bag vs. sleeping baby swimming pool vs. swimming boy B. sentence stress:
? In English nouns, main verbs, adjectives, adverbs and demonstrative pronouns are usually stressed, whereas
auxiliary verbs, conjunctions, prepositions, pronouns are not normally stressed. e.g. I must leave in the morning, otherwise I‘ll be late for the train. ? Rhythmic considerations influence the placement of stress. e.g. Mary‘s younger brother wanted fifty chocolate peanuts. e.g. She‘s fifteen years old. She‘s only fifteen. e.g. He went away. John went away.
? For special emphasis, each word in a sentence can be stressed. e.g. Jack came yesterday by train. 3. tone声调/音调
? Languages that use the pitch of individual syllables to contrast meanings are called tone languages. ? Chinese, Thai, Burmese and many American Indian languages are tone languages. 妈 麻 马 骂 4. intonation语调
? Languages that use pitch syntactically (e.g. to change a sentence from a statement to a question) or in which
the changing pitch of a whole sentence is otherwise important to the meaning are called intonation languages (e.g. English).
e.g. You are a student. Are you a student? ? functions of intonation:
a. It may indicate different sentence types by pitch directions. falling tone---a statement rising tone---a question
e.g. I beg your pardon. ?(I‘m sorry.) I beg your pardon. ?(Can you say that again?) b. its attitudinal functions: falling tone---matter-of-fact statements downright assertions, commands rising tone---politeness, encouragement, pleading
c. It may impose different stress on the sentence by dividing it into different intonation units. e.g. John didn‘t come because of Mary.
e.g. Those who bought quickly made a profit. e.g. What did you put in my drink, Rose? What did you put in my drink, rose?
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Chapter 3 Morphology
morphology 形态学--- the study of the internal structure of words, and the rules by which words are formed *A word is a minimal free form of a language that has a given sound and meaning and syntactic function. e.g. fine /fain/ (sound) good (meaning) It is fine today. (syntactic function) (1) classification of words
1. open class words and closed class words:
? open class: nouns, verbs, adjectives, adverbs
? closed class: conjunctions, prepositions, articles, pronouns 2. grammatical words and lexical words (function words and content words) 3. word class (parts of speech)
(2) morpheme 词素/语素--- the minimal unit of meaning e.g. boyish---boy + -ish beautiful---beauty + -ful unfair---un- + fair dislike---dis- + like
? allomorph语素变体---the alternate shape or phonemic forms for a morpheme e.g. a book, an apple e.g. teacher, actor
e.g. impossible, incorrect, illegal, irresponsible
e.g. maps [s] dogs [z] watches [iz] mice [ai] oxen [n] teeth [i:] sheep 1) free morphemes自由语素vs. bound morphemes粘着语素: 1. free morphemes (i.e. morphemes that can stand alone) e.g. boy, girl, act, teach, good, nice, in, a, the
2. bound morphemes (i.e.morphemes that cannot stand alone) A. prefix: e.g. un-, im-, dis-, re-, en-, B. suffix: e.g. -ly, -ful, -ive, -ness, -tion,-or, -ity, 2) derivational and inflectional morphemes: 1. derivational morphemes派生语素:
? When they are conjoined to other morphemes/words, a new word is derived. A. word class changed: length+-en fool+-ish pay+-ee rapid+-ity exact+-ly accept+-able B. word class unchanged: non-+smoker ex-+president il-+logical profit+-eer tall+-ish 2. inflectional morphemes屈折语素: bound morphemes that are purely grammatical markers, signifying such concepts as tense, number, case and so on.
A. number: tables
B. person/finiteness: opens
C. aspect: talks, talking, talked, taken D. case: boy‘s
E. degree of comparison: smaller, smallest
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free morpheme morpheme derivational bound morpheme inflectional prefix前缀 derivational morpheme suffix后缀 affix inflectional morpheme (3) root, stem, base 1) root词根
? A root is that part of the word left when all the affixes are removed. e.g. internationalism (root --- nation)
? free root morpheme --- those that can stand alone e.g. ?friend‘ in ?friendly, friendship‘
? bound root morpheme --- those that cannot stand alone e.g. ?-ceive‘ in ?receive, perceive, conceive‘ ?-mit‘ in ?remit, permit, commit, submit‘ ?-cur‘ in ?incur, recur, occur‘ ?-tain‘ in ?retain, contain, maintain‘ 2) stem词干
? A stem is any morpheme or combination of morpheme to which an inflectional affix can be added. e.g. friends (stem --- friend) friendships (stem --- friendship) 3) base词基
? A base is any form to which affixes of any kind can be added. e.g. desirable (base --- desire) (4) compounds free morpheme + free morpheme e.g. daybreak haircut playboy
? Compounds usually have different stress patterns from the noncompounded word sequence. green 'house --- 'greenhouse black 'board --- 'blackboard
? The meaning of a compound is not always the sum of the meanings of its parts. e.g. redcoat greenhand (5) sememe义素 vs. morpheme ? one morpheme vs. one sememe e.g. -less: ?without‘
? one morpheme vs. more than one sememe e.g. a- : ?not‘ (atypical, asymmetry) a- : to enhance the meaning of the original senses (arise, await) ? one sememe vs. more than one morpheme e.g. ?not‘: in-, un-, non-
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