或类别中的词语一起组成句子或句子的某一特定部分。 Question:
? Do the syntagmatic relation and paradigmatic relation exist at the phonological or morphological level? Key:
a. at the phonological level [seif]: [s][ei][f] [sei_]: [seif] [seiv]
b. at the morphological level careless: care + less care-: careless careful c. at the sentential level
3. Grammatical construction and its constituents
3.1 Grammatical Construction or construct can be used to mean any syntactic construct which is assigned one or more conventional functions in a language, together with whatever is linguistically conventionalized about its contribution to the meaning or use the construct contains.
语法结构或建构用来指语言中被赋予一种或多种功能的任何句法建构，包括在语言学上该建构所拥有的常规意义和用法。
3.2 Constituents and Phrase Structure
? Constituent is a part of a larger linguistic unit. Several constituents together form a construction: ? the boy (NP) ? ate the apple (VP) ? the boy ate the apple (S)
? Immediate Constituent: If two constituents are joined to form a hierarchically higher constituent, then the constituents are said to be the immediate constituents of the a hierarchically higher constituent.
Immediate constituent analysis or IC analysis（直接成分分析） This notion was proposed by the American linguist Leonard Bloomfield（布龙菲尔德） in his Language (first published in 1933).
Immediate constituent analysis is the analysis of a sentence in terms of its immediate constituents – word groups (or phrases), which are in turn analyzed into the immediate constituents of their own, and the process goes on until the ultimate (words) constituents are reached.
Any sentence can be divided into two parts (Immediate Constituents), then continue until the smallest units( ultimate constituents).
The immediate constituent analysis of a sentence may be carried out with slashes, labeled square brackets or be more easily shown with a tree diagram.
Word-level Phrasal N=noun NP=noun phrase A=adjective AP=adjective phrase V=verb VP=verb phrase P=preposition PP=preposition phrase Det=determiner S=sentence or clause Adv=adverb Conj=conjunction ? Exercises:
? Draw the appropriate tree structure for each example. ? Into the tree ? Fixed the telephone ? Full of mistakes ? A film about pollution ? Perhaps earn the money ? More towards the window
? The teacher often organized a discussion. ? The manager may offer a raise.
? That shelf will fall.
? The student always loses the debate.
The advantages of IC Analysis: Through IC analysis, the internal structure of a sentence may be demonstrated clearly, and ambiguities, if any, will be revealed. E.g. Tony is a dirty street fighter. my small child’s toy
Visiting aunts can be boring.
SNPNPS
VPAunts who visit can be boringSS?NPVP
VPSomeone to visit aunts can be boring
The disadvantages of the IC analysis: a. Binary divisions: any constructions, at any level, will be cut into
two parts. It is not always possible, e.g. the tall man and woman
b.Constructions with discontinuous constituents will pose technical problems for tree diagrams in IC analysis. e.g. What do you do?
c. The most serious problem is that there are structural ambiguities which cannot be revealed by IC analysis, e.g. the shooting of the hunters Deep structure and surface structure
? Deep structure: By XP rule which determines the internal structure of the phrasal categories. ? E.g A boy found a book.
? Surface structure: By appropriate transformations that correspond to the final syntactic form of the sentence ? E.g . What languages can you speak ? you can speak what languages
3.3 Endocentric and exocentric constructions（向心结构和离心结构）
Endocentric construction is one construction whose distribution is functionally equivalent, or approaching equivalent, to one of its constituents, which serves as the center, or head, of the whole. Hence an endocentric construction is also known as a headed