语篇的衔接手段
cohesion and coherence 衔接与连贯
? 他们系统地将衔接分为五大类：照应（reference）、替代（substitution）、省略（ellipsis）、连接（conjunction）及词汇衔接（lexical cohesion）。 其中前三类属于语法手段，第四类属于逻辑手段，最后一类属于词汇衔接手段。 ? 照应（reference）是一些起信号作用的词项。它们不能像大多数词项那样本身可作出语义理解，而只能通过照应别的词项来说明信息（Halliday & Hasan, 1976:31）。照应分为外照应（exophora）和内照应（endophora）。内照应又可分为下照应（或称后照应）（anaphora）和上照应（或称前照应）（cataphora）。 外照应指独立于上下文之外的词项。内照应指意义依赖于上下文的词项。下照应（后照应）指意义依赖于前述词项的词项、上照应（前照应）指意义依赖于后述词项的词项。
The snail is considered a great delicacy.
As the child grows, he learns to be independent.
It never should have happened. She went out and left the door open.
? 替代（substitution）指用一个词项去代替另一个或几个词项，是词项之间的一种代替关系。英语中常用的替代词one(s), do, same。Halliday和Hasan将其分为名词性替代、动词性替代和从句性替代。由于前述句子或上下文使得意义明确而省去句子的一部分称作为省略。它可以视为“零替代”（Halliday & Hasan, 1976:142），省去一些上下文可使之意义明确的成分。
Compare the new dictionary with the old one(s). We rent a house, but they own one. A: Black coffee, please. B: The same for me.
They do not buy drinks at the supermarket, but we do. I think so.
■ 省略Ellipsis
He prefers Dutch cheese and I prefer Danish. ---Do you understand? ---I tried to.
---You haven’t told him yet. ---Not yet.
连接（conjunction）是句际间意义相互联系的一种衔接手段，常用的有递进、转折、因果、时间。词义衔接是实现衔接的又一手段。它是通过词义的选择来实现的。
I told him years ago, but he won’t listen. He was drowned because he fell off the pier.
With the following conjunctions in sentences or passages:
*英语逻辑关系表示法*
1. 先后或列举：first, second?; in the second place; nest/then; for one thing?for another?; furthermore/moreover/in addition/ besides;finally/last; and等。
2. 因果：consequently/ as a result/ hence/ accordingly/ thus/so/therefore; because/since/for等。 3.特例或举例：in particular; specifically; for instance/ for example; that is /namely等。
4.转折： But/however/yet/nevertheless; on the contrary; on the other hand; neither…nor等。
5.引出结论：in conclusion/finally/all in all/ to sum up；evidently/ clearly/ actually; of course等。 6. 表示频率：frequently/often; occasionally/ now and then; day after day; again and again等。 7. 表示阶段：during; briefly; for a long time; for many years等。
8. 表某一时刻：then/ at that time/ in those days; last Sunday; next Christmas; in 2005; at the beginning go Sep; at six o’clock; two months ago等。
9. 表示开端：at first/ in the beginning; before then; in the preceding weeks等。
10. 表示其间：in the meantime/ while this was going on/ meanwhile/ as it was happening/ at the same time/ simultaneously等。
11. 表示结束：eventually/ finally/ at last/ in the end 等。
词义衔接主要可划分为重复、同义词、反义词、局部词、上座标词、下义词和搭配。
Cohesion devices in the text Why Historians Disagree Paragraphs Cohesion devices 1 → 2 grammatical
Their reaction to this state of affairs? 2 → 3 grammatical This position is hardly satisfying 3 → 4 logical/zero connector 4 → 5 logical/grammatical/lexical In its broadest sense, history denotes…
5 → 6 logical/grammatical But this does not say enough 6 → 7 lexical
Historians are able to select and create… 7 → 8 lexical/grammatical If the choices were as simple as this,… 8 → 9 logical/ lexical
What then are historians to make of these facts 9 → 10 grammatical Similarly… 10→ 11 lexical In the examples given,…
11→ 12 logical/lexical 12→ 13 logical/lexical
Thematic and Information Structure. The Hallidayan Approach
? Thematic structure: theme and rheme
? A clause consists of two segments. The first one is called the theme which is what the clause is about. The
second called the rheme is what the speaker says about the theme.
? In a word, a clause is a message that says something (the rheme) about something (the theme). Marked and unmarked Theme
? The unmarked is normally and expectedly selected; marked is abnormal and unexpected, a
linguistic variation.
Types of unmarked theme
Simple theme
1a The fat boy (T) | thought for a moment (R). b Unwillingly (T) | Ralph felt his lips twitch (R).
c Behind this (T) | was the darkness of the forest proper and the open space of the scar (R). Multiple theme
1 “And (T-Text) sooner or later (T-Inter) a ship (T-Idea) |will put in here…”
2 或许(T-Text)正因为(T-Inter) 自己(T-Idea) |缺乏领导才能…… Clausal theme
? 1 The undergrowth at the side of the scar (T1) | was shaken (R1) : and a multitude of raindrops (T2) fell
pattering (R2).
? 1 The undergrowth at the side of the scar was shaken (T) | : and a multitude of raindrops fell pattering
(R).
? 2 季文耀(T1) |站在房子当中(R1) ，双手(T2) |叉腰(R2) ， 满面(T3) |春风(R3) 。 ? 2 季文耀站在房子当中(T) | ，双手叉腰， 满面春风(R)。
Types of marked theme
Fronted theme
In China the book received a great deal popularity.
On 5th November 2008, Barack Obama won the US presidential election. A great deal popularity the book received in China. Well publicized the book was. Predicated theme
It was in China that the book received a great deal popularity. It was the book that received a great deal popularity in China. It was a great deal popularity that the book received in China
It was in the year 2001 that the book received a great deal popularity in China. Identifying theme
What was received in China by the book was a great deal popularity. What the book received in China was a great deal popularity.
A brief assessment of this position on theme
A rheme-theme sequence finds no place in Halliday’s system, which fits SVO and SOV languages but not VSO languages though they are relatively few.
His view on theme is closely related to his study of the English language with a relatively fixed word order and his study of the Chinese language with a category of topic which always occurs at the beginning of the clause. Keep in mind that “social languages” and “Discourses” are terms for different things．P25
语篇由于交际功能不同，主题、内容有异，文章的体裁以及作者风格有别，其语篇结构是多种多样的。Werlich (1976)把语篇分为五个结构类型，即，说明类（expository），描写类（descriptive），叙事类（narrative），论辩类（argumentative），指导类（instructive）
? 一般地讲，多数语篇是不同类型的混合体，我们通常把占绝对优势和支配地位的语篇类型作为该语篇的结构类型。不同的语篇结构具有不同的结构特点，而具体到某一特定语篇，语篇都具有二个结构：一，语言结构，由语言基本成分（词、句）构成；二，语篇结构，由语义构成。
叙事结构及其语言特征
? 拉波夫叙事结构模式 ? Labov（1972）根据自然叙事顺序总结出的结构模式包括六个部分：点题（abstraction）、 ? 指向（orientation）、
? 发展（complicating events）、 ? 评价（evaluation）、 ? 结局（resolution）、 ? 尾声（coda）（
点题是叙事之始要讲的内容的简短概括（如：I must tell you about an embarrassing moment yesterday）。多数（并非所有）自然叙事作品都会有这个成分。
指向是叙事者对时间、地点、人物所作的交代（如：Last week, that secretary in our office…）。指向的语言标记多是过去进行式和时间、方式、地点状语。
发展指接下来发生的事情，是对构成故事的主要事件的发展安排（如：The Xerox machine caught fire）。其语言标记为动词的一般过去式或一般现在式，事件按一定时间顺序排列，改变它们的顺序会引起本来语义结构的时间序列发生变化，如将“The girl got pregnant . The girl married. ”中的句子顺序颠倒过来，故事就大不相同。
评价指叙事者以直接或间接方式告诉读者或听者故事的可读、可听性（如：You’ll love this one）。
评价包括外部评价和内部评价，外部评价是情节之外的叙事者的评论，内部评价是情节发展的特定时刻角色发出的评论。篇章内部的评价手段包括有效的文本手段如夸张等，也包括语言形式标记如否定形式、将来时、情态词、比较词等。
结局指一系列事件的结束，这一部分所描述的是故事的结果、结局，其中包括人物的下场、目的的实现或失败等。（如：She got $ 2,000 compensation）。
尾声是故事世界和讲故事时的现实世界之间构建的一种联系（如：Ever since, I’ve never been able to look at a mango without feeling sick）。应该指出的是，并不是所有叙事结构都包括上述六个部分，通常的情况是，较小的叙事结构往往只有两三个部分，较大的叙事结构如小说常常包括这六个部分。拉波夫叙事结构模式实际上就是叙述文体语篇的宏观结构框架
叙事结构的语言特征
? 与英语的其他结构相比，叙述结构具有以下三个特征：
? 1、用词最丰富，可能会涉及哲学、伦理、历史、文学、艺术、宗教、法律、军事、政治、经济、科技等等诸多领域的词汇；
? 2、语体类型最多，可能会有正式和非正式英语，口语和书面语、甚至有大量的俚语、行话、方言等等，
? 3、语言现象最丰富，语法现象多，特别是虚拟语气，独立主格等其他文体较少用的语法手段多；句型结构变化多，特别是复合句，省略句频频出现；修辞手段多，特别是
比喻（Figuration），比拟(Comparison)，夸张(Hyperbole)和排比(Parallelism)等等（刘宓庆，1998，240-245）。上述这些语言结构特点也就是我们在教学中的微观内容。
Eg: My Experience: An odd thing happened to me last Sunday. It was such a beautiful day that I decided to go for a leisurely drive in the country….. ? 1 abstraction, marked by
? the title and L1（An odd thing…）. ? 2 orientation, marked by
? L1(last Sunday),L1-4 (it.. home)
? 3 complicating action, marked by L4(my motor stopped), L5-9 (I decided? the road) , L11-14(I ? answered), L16-17(oh? gasoline), L18-19(she.. me), L21-22(as? could).
? 4 evaluation, marked by ? L1-3(it was? country),
? L4-5(I was?town),L9-10(I ?dark), L14-15(I..about), L17-18(but?me), L20(she? leave) L23(Fortunately?road), ? 5 resolution, marked by ? L24 (I?gasoline) ? 6 code, marked by ? L24-29(when?back)
Eg: A Dill Pickle:
And then, after six years, she saw him again. He….
小说A Dill Pickle 的叙事结构
小说A Dill Pickle 的叙事结构包括点题，指向，发展，评价，结局五个部分： 点题：标题A Dill Pickle 概括故事的主题。
指向：第一段中的And then, after six years, she saw him again. He was seated at one of those little
bamboo tables…。交代故事的时间、地点和人物。
发展：第二段中的She came towards him。…He laid down the orange and pushed back his chair
? 第四段中的And she sat down opposite him。…She raised her veil and unbutton her high fur collar。
? 第九段中的He interrupted 。 ? 第十二段中的She laughed。 ? 第十三段中的he echoed…。
? 第十五段中的that memory faded。
? 第十六段中的another memory unfolded。 ? 第二十五段中的Ah, when I was in Russia…。 ? 第二十六段中的She broke in 。 ? 第四十一段She shivered,…。
? 第五十三段She had buttoned her collar again and drawn down her veil。 ? 第六十五段中的She had gone。是构成故事情节的主要特征。
评价：第二段中的He must have felt that shock of recognition。
? 第十四段中的Yet, what had remained in her mind of that particular afternoon was an absurd scene。
? 第十五段中的His was the truer。
? 第二十二段中的He was certainly far better looking now than he had been them. He