An In-Depth Look at Deleveragings
Ray Dalio February, 2012
The purpose of this paper is to show the compositions of past deleveragings and, through this process, to convey in-depth, how the deleveraging process works.
The deleveraging process reduces debt/income ratios. When debt burdens become too large, deleveragings must happen. These deleveragings can be well managed or badly managed. Some have been very ugly (causing great economic pain, social upheaval and sometimes wars, while failing to bring down the debt/income ratio), while others have been quite beautiful (causing orderly adjustments to healthy production-consumption balances in debt/income ratios). In this study, we are going to review the mechanics of deleveragings by showing how a number of past deleveragings transpired in order to convey that some are ugly and some are beautiful. What you will see is that beautiful deleveragings are well balanced and ugly ones are badly imbalanced. The differences between how deleveragings are resolved depend on the amounts and paces of 1) debt reduction, 2) austerity, 3) transferring wealth from the haves to the have-nots and 4) debt monetization. What we are saying is that beautiful ones balance these well and ugly ones don’t and what we will show below is how.
Before we examine these, we will review the typical deleveraging process.
The Typical Deleveraging Process
Typically, deleveragings are badly managed because they come along about once in every lifetime and policy makers haven't studied them. As a result, they usually set policies like blind men trying to cook on a hot stove, through a painful trial and error process in which the pain of their mistakes drives them away from the bad moves toward the right moves. Since everyone eventually gets through the deleveraging process, the only question is how much pain they endure in the process. Because there have been many deleveragings throughout history to learn from, and because the economic machine is a relatively simple thing, a lot of pain can be avoided if they understand how this process works and how it has played out in past times. That is the purpose of this study.
As previously explained, the differences between deleveragings depend on the amounts and paces of 1) debt reduction, 2) austerity, 3) transferring wealth from the haves to the have-nots, and 4) debt monetization. Each one of these four paths reduces debt/income ratios, but they have different effects on inflation and growth. Debt reduction (i.e., defaults and restructurings) and austerity are both deflationary and depressing while debt monetization is inflationary and stimulative. Ugly deleveragings get these out of balance while beautiful ones properly balance them. In other words, the key is in getting the mix right.
? 2012 Bridgewater Associates, LP1
Typically, in response to a debt crisis the going to these four steps takes place in the following order:
1) At first, problems servicing debt and the associated fall off in debt growth cause an economic contraction in which the debt/income ratios rise at the same time as economic activity and financial asset prices fall. We will call this phase an “ugly deflationary deleveraging”. Debt reduction (i.e., defaults and restructurings) and austerity without material debt monetization characterize this phase. During this period, the fall in private sector credit growth and the tightness of liquidity lead to declines in demand for goods, services and financial assets. The financial bubble bursts when there is not enough money to service the debt and debt defaults and restructurings hit people, especially leveraged lenders (banks), like an avalanche that causes fears. These justified fears feed on themselves and lead to a liquidity crisis. As a result, policy makers find themselves in a mad scramble to contain the defaults before they spin out of control. This path to reducing debt burdens (i.e., debt defaults and restructurings) must be limited because it would otherwise lead to a self-reinforcing downward spiral in which defaults and restructurings can be so damaging to confidence that, if let go, they might prevent faith and recoveries from germinating for years. Defaults and restructurings cannot be too large or too fast because one man's debts are another man's assets, so the wealth effect of cutting the value of these assets aggressively can be devastating on the demands for goods, services and investment assets. Since in order to reduce debt service payments to sustainable levels the amount of write-down must equal what is required so the debtor will be able to pay (e.g., let's say it’s 30% less), a write-down will reduce the creditor's asset value by that amount (e.g. 30%). While 30% sounds like a lot, since many entities are leveraged, the impacts on their net worths can be much greater. For example, the creditor who is leveraged 2:1 would experience a 60% decline in his net worth. Since banks are typically leveraged about 12 or 15:1, that picture is obviously devastating for them. This is usually apparent from the outset of the deleveragings. Since the devastating forcefulness of the wave of defaults that occurs in a deleveraging is apparent from the outset, policy makers are typically immediately motivated to contain the rate of defaults, though they typically don't know the best ways to do that.
In reaction to the shock of the debt crisis, policy makers typically try austerity because that's the obvious thing to do. Since it is difficult for the debtor to borrow more, and since it’s clear that he already has too much debt, it’s obvious that he has to cut his spending to bring it back in line with his income. The problem is that one man's spending is another man's income, so when spending is cut, incomes are also cut, so it takes an awful lot of painful spending cuts to make significant reductions to debt/income ratios. Normally policy makers play around with this path for a couple of years, get burned by the results, and eventually realize that more must be done because the deflationary and depressing effects of both debt reduction and austerity are too painful. That leads them to go to the next phase in which “printing money” plays a bigger role. We don’t mean to convey that debt reductions and austerity don’t play beneficial roles in the deleveraging process because they do – just not big enough roles to make much of a difference and with too painful results unless balanced with “printing money/monetization”.
2) In the second phase of the typical deleveraging the debt/income ratios decline at the same time as economic activity and financial asset prices improve. This happens because there is enough “printing of money/debt monetization” to bring the nominal growth rate above the nominal interest rate and a currency devaluation to offset the deflationary forces. This creates a “beautiful deleveraging”. The best way of negating the deflationary depression is for the central bank to provide adequate liquidity and credit support and, depending on different key entities’ need for capital, for the central government to provide that too. This takes the form of the central bank both lending against a wider range of collateral (both lower quality and longer maturity) and buying (monetizing) lower-quality and/or longer-term debt. This produces relief and, if done in the right amounts, allows a deleveraging to occur with positive growth. The right amounts are those that a) neutralize what would otherwise be a deflationary credit market collapse and b) get the nominal growth rate marginally above the nominal interest rate to tolerably spread out the deleveraging process. At such times of reflation, there is typically currency weakness, especially against gold, but
? 2012 Bridgewater Associates, LP2
this will not produce unacceptably high inflation because the reflation is simply negating the deflation. History has shown that those who have done it quickly and well (like the US in 2008/9) have derived much better results than those who did it late (like the US in 1930-33). However, there is such a thing as abusive use of stimulants. Because stimulants work so well relative to the alternatives, there is a real risk that they can be abused, causing an “ugly inflationary deleveraging”.
3) When there is too much “printing of money/monetization” and too severe a currency devaluation (which are reflationary) relative to the amounts of the other three alternatives “ugly inflationary deleveragings” can occur. When these happen a) they either occur quickly in countries that don’t have reserve currencies, that have significant foreign currency denominated debts and in which the inflation rate is measured in their rapidly depreciating local currency, and b) they can occur slowly and late in the deleveraging process of reserve currency countries, after a long time and a lot of stimulation that is used to reverse a deflationary deleveraging.
By the way, transfers of wealth from the have to the have-nots typically occur in many forms (e.g., increased taxes on the wealthy, financial support programs such as those the \are providing to the overly indebted ones, etc.) throughout the process, but they rarely occur in amounts that contribute meaningfully to the deleveraging (unless there are \
Now let's take a look at some past deleveragings so we can see these things happening.
Past Deleveragings
While there are dozens of deleveragings that we could have picked, we chose six – 1) the US in the 1930s, 2) the UK in the '50s and '60s, 3) Japan over the past two decades, 4) the US 2008-now, 5) Spain now and 6) the Weimar Republic in the 1920s – because they are both important and different in interesting ways. As you will see, while they are different because the amounts and paces of the four paths to deleveraging were different, “the economic machines” that drove the outcomes were basically the same.
We are going to begin by looking at the first five and then turn our attention to the Weimar Republic’s inflationary deleveraging.
We will break these down into three groups, which we will call:
1) “ugly deflationary deleveragings” (which occurred before enough money was “printed” and
deflationary contractions existed and when nominal interest rates were above nominal growth rates),
2) “beautiful deleveragings” (those in which enough “printing” occurred to balance the deflationary
forces of debt reduction and austerity in a manner in which there is positive growth, a falling debt/income ratio and nominal GDP growth above nominal interest rates), and
3) “ugly inflationary deleveragings” (in which the “printing” is large relative to the deflationary forces
and nominal growth through monetary inflation and interest rates are in a self-reinforcing upward spiral).
? 2012 Bridgewater Associates, LP3
The Ugly Deflationary Deleveragings (i.e., when the economy was bad while the debt/income ratio rose)
As shown below, in all of these cases, a) money printing was limited, b) nominal growth was below nominal rates, c) the currency was generally strong, and d) the debt/income ratios rose because of the combination of interest payment costs and nominal incomes falling or stagnating.
US Depression:1930-1932Monetary Policy in DeleveragingsNominal GDP Growth - Gov't Bond Yield-20.4%Nominal GDP Growth-17.0%GDP Deflator-8.0%Real-9.0%Gov't Bond Yield, Avg.3.4%M0 Growth % GDP, Avg. Ann.0.4?ntral Bank Asset Purchases & Lending, 10yr Dur., Ann.0.4%FX v. Price of Gold (+ means rally v. gold), Ann0.0%FX v. USD (TWI for USA), Ann2.9%Total Debt level as % GDP: Starting Point155%Total Debt level as % GDP: Ending Point252%Change in Total Debt (% GDP)96%Change in Total Debt (% GDP), Ann.32%*For ESP, showing ECB lending to ESP, not duration adjusted.Japan: 1990-Present-2.0%0.6%-0.5%1.1%2.6%0.7%0.1%-3.5%2.9@3I8?%4%US:July 2008-Feb 2009(Pre-QE)-8.7%-5.4%2.0%-7.2%3.4%3.1%0.5%-3.2@.24268'@%Spain: 09/08-Present-5.5%-0.5%0.6%-1.1%5.0%3.6%*2.0%*-20.0%-4.94889A% Sources: Global Financial Data & BW Estimates
The following charts attribute the changes in debt/GDP. More specifically, a black dot conveys the total annualized change in debt/GDP. Each bar breaks up the attribution of this change into the following pieces: changes in GDP (i.e., income) and changes in the nominal value of the debt stock. Income changes are broken into (1) real income changes and (2) inflation. A decline in real GDP shows up as a positive contribution to debt/GDP in the shaded region, while an increase in inflation shows up as a negative contribution. Changes in nominal debt levels are broken into (3) defaults, (4) the amount of new borrowing required just to make interest payments, and (5) whatever increases or decreases in borrowing that occur beyond that. So, defaults show up as negatives, while interest payments show up as positives and new borrowing beyond interest payments as positives or negatives (depending on whether new debt was created or paid down).
Periods Where Debt / GDP Rose: Attribution of Change in Debt Burdens (Annual)Real Growth60P%InflationInterest PaymentsNew Borrow. Above Int. PaymentsDefaultsTotal Change in DebtChange in Debt % GDP400 %0%-10%-20%-30%US Depression:1930-1932Japan:1990-PresentUS:July 2008-Feb 2009(Pre-QE)Spain
? 2012 Bridgewater Associates, LP4
The Beautiful Deleveragings (i.e., when the economy was growing in a balanced way with the debt/income ratio declining)
As shown below, in all of these cases, money printing and currency devaluations were sizable, nominal growth rates were pushed above nominal interest rates and the debt/income ratios fell. During the reflation periods, a recovery in nominal incomes lessened the debt/income burdens. Naturally, in cases in which the downturns that preceded these periods were very deep (e.g., 1930-32 in the US) the rebounds were greater.
US Reflation: 1933-19376.3%9.2%2.0%7.2%2.9%1.7%0.3%-10.0%-1.6%28%-84%-17%UK: 1947-19691.6%6.8%3.9%2.9%5.2%0.3%0.0%-1.4%-2.3956%-249%-11%US:March 2009 -Present(Post QE)0.3%3.5%1.4%2.0%3.2%3.3%3.1%-18.9%-4.86834%-34%-13%Monetary Policy in DeleveragingsNominal GDP Growth - Gov't Bond YieldNominal GDP GrowthGDP DeflatorRealGov't Bond Yield, Avg.M0 Growth % GDP, Avg. Ann.Central Bank Asset Purchases & Lending, 10yr Dur., Ann.FX v. Price of Gold (+ means rally v. gold), AnnFX v. USD (TWI for USA), AnnTotal Debt level as % GDP: Starting PointTotal Debt level as % GDP: Ending PointChange in Total Debt (% GDP)Change in Total Debt (% GDP), Ann.*For ESP, ECB lending to ESP and ECB purchases of ESP assets is shown.Sources: Global Financial Data & BW Estimates
The chart that follows shows the rates and compositions of the reductions in the debt/income ratios. The dots show the change in the debt/income ratios and the bars show the attribution of the sources of these reductions.
Periods Where Debt / GDP Declined: Attribution of Change in Debt Burdens (Annual)Real Growth30 %InflationInterest PaymentsNew Borrow. Above Int. PaymentsDefaultsTotal Change in DebtChange in Debt % GDP10%0%-10%-20%-30%-40%US Reflation:1933-1937UK:1947-1969US:March 2009 - Present(Post QE)
Note: In the US nominal growth has outpaced nominal government bond yields, but has been a bit below aggregate interest rates paid in the economy (given the credit spread component of private sector debt and that the fall in bond yields today flows through with a lag to the rate borne in the economy). As a result, the increase in debt/GDP from interest payments has been a bit higher than the reduction from nominal incomes (real + inflation), but the trajectory is for aggregate economy-wide interest rates to fall below nominal growth. ? 2012 Bridgewater Associates, LP5
The Ugly Inflationary Deleveraging (i.e., when the economy was bad at the same time as there was hyperinflation that wiped out the debts)
While you can get the rough big picture of the dynamic from the numbers below, which summarize the hyperinflation of the Weimar Republic, the explanation that will follow later will make this picture clearer. This dynamic is basically the same as those in other inflationary deleveragings such as those in Latin America in the 1980s.
Weimar Republic: 1919-1923Monetary Policy Chg in FX v. Gold Over PeriodTotal % Chg in M0 Over PeriodAttribution of Change in Debt %GDPStarting Total Govt Obligations %GDPOf Which:WWI ReparationsOther Govt DebtChange in Total Govt Obligations %GDPOf Which:WWI Reparations (Defaulted On)*Other Govt Debt (Inflated away) -100%1.2 Trillion ?3x03%-913%-780%-133% * The reparations were reduced from 269 billion gold marks at the start of 1921 to 132 that spring. After the Reich stopped paying reparations in the summer of 1922, the debts were restructured multiple times – to 112 in 1929, and then basically wiped out in 1932.
The attribution of the hyperinflation and default in reducing the debt is shown below:
Weimar Republic: 1919-1923Inflation50%-50%-150TfaultsTotal Change in DebtChange in Debt % GDP-250%-350%-450%-550%-650%-750%-850%-950%
? 2012 Bridgewater Associates, LP6
A Closer Look at Each
United States Depression and Reflation, 1930-1937
As explained, the US Great Deleveraging in the 1930s transpired in two phases – a deflationary depression from 1930 through 1932, and a reflationary deleveraging from 1933 to 1937. The charts below show debt levels against nominal GDP growth year over year (left chart) and against the total return of stocks (right chart). Debt levels as % of GDP are on the right axis of each chart. The line shows where there was a significant amount of “money printing”. The first phase is labeled (1) and the second phase is labeled (2). During the first phase (the “ugly deflationary depression” phase), income and credit collapsed, with nominal growth rates falling significantly below nominal interest rates, and the economy contracted while the debt/income ratio rose. As shown, it followed the stock market bubble bursting in September 1929. As a result of that private sector deleveraging, incomes collapsed, to the point that they were declining by nearly 30% per year at the end of 1932. Because of the fall in incomes, debt/GDP rose from roughly 150% to 250% of GDP (as shown on the left). Through this time stocks fell by more than 80% (as shown on the right). This first phase ended and the second phase began when the money printing started in March 1933. FDR broke the peg to gold and the dollar fell 40% from 21 dollars/ounce to 35 over the course of the year. This reflation also led to rising economic activity, and nominal growth to be above nominal interest rates. 1937 is when it ended in response to the Fed turning restrictive which caused a “re”cession (which is when the term was invented).
USA NGDP Y/Y30 %0%-10%-20%-30%-40)Dollar devalued 40% against gold USA Debt % GDP 110%USA Equities TR IndexUSA Debt % GDP 250%(1)(2)2500?%(1)(2)230?p`#0!0!00P@000 001333537Sources: Global Financial Data & BW Estimates
10)1501333537
In March of '33, the Fed eased by devaluing the dollar against gold and kept interest rates low for many years. Most of the additional balance sheet expansion was to buy gold to keep the value of the dollar depressed. While the Fed made money easy through low rates and currency, it did not directly buy many risky assets (unlike today as we discuss further below).
? 2012 Bridgewater Associates, LP7
The table below tells this story more precisely. During the “ugly deflationary depression”, incomes collapsed as nominal GDP fell 17% per year, about half from deflation and half from the collapse in real demand. As a result, nominal growth was 20.4% below nominal rates, and debt to GDP rose at a rate of 32% per year. Beginning March 1933, the government devalued the dollar against gold and from ’33-‘37 it increased money supply roughly 1.7% of GDP. Nominal growth recovered at a rate of 9.2% in this period, a combination of 7.2% real growth and moderate 2% inflation. Nominal GDP rose to 6.3% above rates. The private sector reduced its debt burdens, while government borrowing grew with incomes.
US Depression:1930-1932Overall EconomyNominal GDP Growth, Avg. Y/YOf Which:GDP DeflatorRealProductivity Growth Employment GrowthOf Which:DomesticForeignMonetary Policy Nominal GDP Growth - Gov't Bond YieldNominal GDP GrowthGov't Bond Yield, Avg.M0 Growth % GDP, Avg. Ann.Central Bank Asset Purchases & Lending, 10yr Dur., Ann.FX v. Price of Gold (+ means rally v. gold), AnnFX v. USD (TWI for USA), AnnAttribution of Change in Nominal Debt %NGDPTotal Debt level as % GDP: Starting PointTotal Debt level as % GDP: Ending PointChange in Total Debt (% GDP)Change in Total Debt (% GDP), Ann.Of Which:Nominal GDP GrowthReal GrowthInflationChange in Nominal DebtNet New BorrowingNew Borrow. Above Int. PaymentsInterest PaymentsDefaultsOf Which:Government SectorPrivate Sector -17.0%-8.0%-9.0%-2.7%-6.3%-15.2%-1.7%-20.4%-17.0%3.4%0.4%0.4%0.0%2.9%US Reflation: 1933-19379.2%2.0%7.2%3.9%3.3%8.6%0.6%6.3%9.2%2.9%1.7%0.3%-10.0%-1.6%Nominal growth falls to -17% because of deflation and negative real growth before recovering to 9.2% Nominal growth falls 20.4% below govt yields, but is 6.3% above government bond yields from 1933 through1937 Money printing increases from 0.4% of GDP to 1.7% of GDP The dollar devalues substantially against gold beginning in 1933 155%2?26 %-3%-2%-12%-2%5'%28%-84%-17%-18%-15%-3%1%4%-1%5%-3%1%-18%Nominal debt levels rose at a 32% annual rate in 1930-1932 before falling 17% per year in1933-1937 Sources: Global Financial Data & BW Estimates ? 2012 Bridgewater Associates, LP8
The chart below shows an over time picture of the same basic attribution shown earlier. Relative to GDP, total debt was the same in 1937 as in 1930. In between, it ballooned because of a contraction in incomes from deflation and negative real growth. The reversal of the debt burden was driven by a rise in incomes to 1930 levels in nominal terms. Borrowing for interest payments was mostly offset by paying down of debts.
Attribution of Change in USA Total Debt as % of NGDPReal GrowthInflationNew Borrow. Above Int. PaymentsInterest PaymentsDefaultsTotal Debt, % GDP (RHS)1755u%%-25%-75%-1250323436330(0#000?0%
This reversal in incomes was also the primary driver of changes in debt burdens for the private sector, along with
debt pay-downs. Defaults were a small driver.
Attribution of Change in USA Private Sector Debt as % of NGDPReal GrowthInflationNew Borrow. Above Int. PaymentsInterest PaymentsDefaultsUSA Private Sector Debt as % of GDP140?@%-10%-60%-110%-1600323436280#000?0%-20%Sources: Global Financial Data & BW Estimates for charts above
? 2012 Bridgewater Associates, LP9
The stock of government debt was small at the onset of the depression. Initially, this debt burden rose because of the collapse in income. Nominal government debt levels increased following 1933 because of larger fiscal deficits, while the income recovery cushioned the increase in these burdens.
Attribution of Change in USA Government Debt as % of NGDPReal GrowthNew Borrow. Above Int. PaymentsInflationInterest PaymentsGovernment Debt, % GDP (RHS)1700p %-30%-80%-13003234361855?5%-15%-65%-115%
As shown below, the catalyst for the recovery was the printing and dollar devaluation against gold. Price levels
turned at this point, from declining at an average rate of 8% to increasing roughly 2% per year. This is a good example of how printing negated deflation rather than triggering high inflation.
GDP Deflator Y/Y10%5%0%-5%-10%-15031323334353637Average GDP Deflator before Devaluation Announcement = -8.0% Devaluation AnnouncementAverage GDP Deflator after DevaluationAnnouncement = 2.0% Sources: Global Financial Data & BW Estimates for charts above
? 2012 Bridgewater Associates, LP10
As shown below, real economic activity also rebounded after the announcement.
USA RGDP (Y/Y)15%5%0%-5%-10%-15031323334353637Average RGDP Growth before Devaluation Announcement = -9.0% Devaluation AnnouncementAverage RGDP Growth after DevaluationAnnouncement = 7.2% Credit stopped declining at this point and stabilized at low levels of creation, while money printing increased moderately.
USA M0 (Y/Y, % PotGDP)20%5%0%-5%-10%-15%-20031323334353637Average Money Printing, 30 - 32 = 0.3% PotGDPAverage Money Printing, 33 - 37 = 1.6% PotGDPUSA Total Debt (Y/Y, % PotGDP)Sources: Global Financial Data & BW Estimates for charts above
With the different policy steps taken from 1933 through 1937, nominal GDP growth moved substantially above government rates, greatly reducing debt burdens.
? 2012 Bridgewater Associates, LP11
NGDP Y/Y400 %0%-10%-20%-30%-400313233Average NGDP gwth 1930 - 1932 = -17.0%, which was about 18.6% below avg short rate and 20.4% below avg long rateUSA LRUSA SRAverage NGDP gwth 1933 - 1937 = 9.2%, which was about 9.1% above avg short rate and 6.3% above avg long rate34353637
This nominal GDP growth consisted of strong real growth (from a depressed level) and moderate inflation.
NGDP Y/Y60P@0 %0%-10%-20%-30%-40031323334353637Avg GDP Deflator gwth = -8.0%Avg NGDP gwth 1930 - 1932 = -17.0%;Avg RGDP gwth = -9.0% of which prod gwth = -2.7% and emp gwth = -6.3%RGDP Y/YGDP Deflator Y/YAvg NGDP gwth 1933 - 1937 = 9.2%Avg RGDP gwth = 7.2% of which prod gwth = 3.9% and emp gwth = 3.3%Avg GDP Deflator gwth = 2.0%Sources: Global Financial Data & BW Estimates for charts above
? 2012 Bridgewater Associates, LP12
UK Deleveraging, 1947-1969
The charts below show debt levels against nominal GDP growth year over year (left chart) and against the total return of stocks (right chart). Debt levels as % of GDP are on the right axis of each chart. The line shows where a significant amount of “money printing” occurred. The first phase is labeled (1) and the second phase is labeled (2). The UK acquired lots of debt both before and during World War II and entered a recession at the end of World War II, pushing debt burdens higher. As shown, from the end of 1943 to the end of 1947 debt levels rose from just above 250% of GDP to 400%. While in 1948 debt burdens dipped a bit with a recovery in incomes, in September 1949 the UK printed money and devalued the pound by 30% against the dollar and gold, at the same time also keeping short rates basically at zero. As a result nominal growth rose above nominal interest rates, debt levels fell by 250% and stocks rallied between 1948 and 1969.
GBR NGDP Y/Y14%8%6%4%2%0%-2%-4%-6D46485052545658606264666835000%(1)(2)400%GBR Debt % GDP 450%GBR Equities TR Index1600000000%(1)(2)GBR Debt % GDP 450@05000?0%Pound devalued 30% against dollar; and rates kept low 250%0`0 000 000@0 0%0D464850525456586062646668Sources: Global Financial Data & BW Estimates
At the same time that the UK kept interest rates low with easy money during the period, there was a big currency devaluation in 1949 and the BOE increased asset purchases to about 1% GDP in 1950, both of which helped to keep nominal growth above nominal interest rates, which was the most important influence in lowering the debt/income ratio.
? 2012 Bridgewater Associates, LP13
The table below shows how the most important part of this deleveraging occurred. We broke it up into two parts – from 1947 to 1959 and from 1960 to 1969 because they were a bit different.
UK: 1947-1959Overall EconomyNominal GDP Growth, Avg. Y/YOf Which:GDP DeflatorRealProductivity Growth Employment GrowthOf Which:DomesticForeignMonetary Policy Nominal GDP Growth - Gov't Bond YieldNominal GDP GrowthGov't Bond Yield, Avg.M0 Growth % GDP, Avg. Ann.Central Bank Asset Purchases & Lending, 10yr Dur., Ann.FX v. Price of Gold (+ means rally v. gold), AnnFX v. USD (TWI for USA), AnnAttribution of Change in Nominal Debt %NGDPTotal Debt level as % GDP: Starting PointTotal Debt level as % GDP: Ending PointChange in Total Debt (% GDP)Change in Total Debt (% GDP), Ann.Of Which:Nominal GDP GrowthReal GrowthInflationChange in Nominal DebtNet New BorrowingNew Borrow. Above Int. PaymentsInterest PaymentsDefaultsOf Which:Government SectorPrivate Sector Sources: Global Financial Data & BW Estimates UK: 1960-19696.8%3.6%3.1%2.6%0.6%5.6%1.2%0.3%6.8%6.5%0.4%0.1%-1.5%-1.5%BOE keeps interest rates below nominal growth for more than two decades 7.0%4.0%2.9%2.4%0.5%5.6%1.4%2.8%7.0%4.2%0.3%0.0%-1.4%-3.0%UK devalues the pound by 30% against the dollar in Sept. 1949 and pound falls further over the subsequent period 395 0%-195%-16%-21%-7%-14%5%6%-12%-1%-9%-7 06%-54%-5%-24%-5%-19!%-167%-3%-3%-2% ? 2012 Bridgewater Associates, LP14
As shown below, as a result of this mix in policies, the decline in total debt in the post-war period occurred via a rise in nominal GDP which outpaced more modest increases in the amount of new borrowing. Inflation of around 4% from 1947-1970 drove nearly 2/3 of the decline in debt to GDP that is attributable to GDP growth. Net new borrowing was small as borrowing for interest payments was offset by paying down debts. This is shown in the chart below.
Attribution of Change in GBR Total Debt as % of NGDPReal GrowthInflationNew Borrow. Above Int. PaymentsInterest PaymentsDefaultsTotal Debt, % of GDP (RHS)800`0@0 0%0%-200%-400%-600%-800%-1000G4951535557596163656769120000?0`0@0 0%0%-200%-400%-600%
The same is true for both the government and the private sector. The net new borrowing by the government was
relatively small through the period, particularly from 1947-1960. The charts below show the attributions of the changes in the debt ratios.
Attribution of Change in GBR Private Sector Debt as % of NGDPReal GrowthInflationNew Borrow. Above Int. PaymentsDebt ServiceDefaultsPrivate Sector Debt, % GDP (RHS)500000%-100%-300%-500G4951535557596163656769690I0)0?%-110%-310%Sources: Global Financial Data & BW Estimates for charts above
? 2012 Bridgewater Associates, LP15
Attribution of Change in GBR Government Debt as % of NGDPNew Borrow. Above Int. PaymentsReal GrowthInflationDebt ServiceGovernment Debt, % of GDP (RHS)500@000 00%0%-100%-200%-300%-400%-500G4951535557596163656769705`5P5@505 55%5%-95%-195%-295%
NGDP Y/Y25%Avg NGDP gwth 47-59 = 7.0%Avg NGDP gwth 60-69 = 6.8%Avg RGDP gwth 60-69 = 3.1% of which prod. gwth = 2.6% and emp gwth = 0.6%Avg GDP Deflator growth from 60-69 = 3.6%RGDP Y/YGDP Deflator Y/Y20%5%0%-5GAvg RGDP gwth 47-59 = 2.9% of which prod. gwth = 2.4% and emp gwth = 0.5%Avg GDP Deflator gwth 47-59 = 4.0I51535557596163656769
GBR NGDP Y/Y16%8%6%4%2%0G4951535557596163656769Avg nom gwth 47-59 = 7.0% which was 2.8% above avg yld, and 4.3% above avg short rateAvg nom gwth 60-69 = 6.8% which was 0.3% above avg yld, and 0.8% above avg short rateGBR LRGBR Consol YldGBR SRSources: Global Financial Data & BW Estimate for charts above
? 2012 Bridgewater Associates, LP16
Japan Deleveraging, 1990-Present
As shown below, Japan has been stuck in a moderate “ugly deflationary deleveraging” for over 20 years. In 1989 the private sector debt bubble burst and government sector debt/fiscal expansion began, but there was never adequate “money printing/monetization” to cause nominal growth to be above nominal interest rates and to have the currency devalue. While Japan has eased some, nominal income growth has been stagnant, with persistent deflation eroding moderate real growth. Meanwhile, nominal debts have risen much faster, pushing debt levels higher, from about 400% of GDP at the end of 1989 to 500% today. Equities have declined by nearly 70%.
JPN NGDP Y/Y15%(1)10H0%5F0D0B0%-5@0%-10?380?959801040710JPN Debt % GDP 520P000??p`P@0 ?40080?959801040710480F0D0B0%(1)JPN Equities TR IndexJPN Debt % GDP 520P0%0%
The BOJ has “printed/monetized” very little in duration-adjusted terms throughout the deleveraging process, with most of the printing that it has done going to short-term cash-like assets of little duration. As result, it has failed to reflate and the government is building a terrible debt burden.
? 2012 Bridgewater Associates, LP17
As shown in the table below, money creation has been limited at 0.7% of GDP per year, and the yen has appreciated 2.9% per year against the dollar. As a result, since 1990 real growth has averaged 1.1% with persistent deflation (averaging -0.5%). This has left nominal growth 2% below nominal interest rates which cumulatively has led to a large increase in the debt/income ratio. While the private sector has delevered modestly, Japan’s total debt level has climbed from 403% to 498% because of government borrowing and deflation.
Japan: 1990-PresentOverall EconomyNominal GDP Growth, Avg. Y/YOf Which:GDP DeflatorRealProductivity Growth Employment GrowthOf Which:DomesticForeignMonetary Policy Nominal GDP Growth - Gov't Bond YieldNominal GDP GrowthGov't Bond Yield, Avg.M0 Growth % GDP, Avg. Ann.Central Bank Asset Purchases & Lending, 10yr Dur., Ann.FX v. Price of Gold (+ means rally v. gold), AnnFX v. USD (TWI for USA), AnnAttribution of Change in Nominal Debt %NGDPTotal Debt level as % GDP: Starting PointTotal Debt level as % GDP: Ending PointChange in Total Debt (% GDP)Change in Total Debt (% GDP), Ann.Of Which:Nominal GDP GrowthReal GrowthInflationChange in Nominal DebtNet New BorrowingNew Borrow. Above Int. PaymentsInterest PaymentsDefaultsOf Which:Government SectorPrivate Sector 0.6%-0.5%1.1%1.0%0.0%0.2%0.4%-2.0%0.6%2.6%0.7%0.1%-3.5%2.9%Nominal growth below nominal rates Limited money creation, mostly into cash like assets Currency appreciation Debt burden has increasedDeflation and weak growth 403I8?%4%-1%-3%2%6%8%0%8%-2%8%-4%
? 2012 Bridgewater Associates, LP18
The charts below show how the Japan case developed over time, breaking out the cumulative contributions of different drivers to changes in debt burdens relative to incomes. In aggregate in the economy, new borrowing has merely covered continued debt service and no more. Persistent deflation has added to debt burdens, while defaults and real growth have reduced them.
Attribution of Changes in Japan Debt as % of NGDPInflationDefaultsReal GrowthNew Borrowing Above Int. PaymentsInterest PaymentsTotal Debt, % of GDP (RHS)40000 00%0%-100%-200?92949698000204060810800p0`0P0@000 0%
Debt levels for the private sector have fallen modestly. Defaults, real growth and paying down debt after paying interest have helped. Interest payments have been substantial and deflation has also added to debt burdens.
Attribution of Changes in Private Debt as % of NGDPNew Borrowing Above Int. PaymentsDefaultsInflationInterest PaymentsReal GrowthPrivate Debt, % of GDP (RHS)
2500P%-50%-150%-250%-350?92949698000204060810550E050%00P%-50%
? 2012 Bridgewater Associates, LP19
Government borrowing has gone up significantly, mostly to cushion the weak private sector.
Attribution of Changes in Government Debt as % of NGDPInflationReal GrowthNew Borrowing Above Int. PaymentsInterest PaymentsGovernment Debt, % of GDP (RHS)375'55u%-25%-125%-225?9294969800020406081048383(33?%-17%-117%Weak nominal GDP growth has resulted from the combination of mediocre real GDP growth and deflation.
JPN NGDP Y/Y20%Avg NGDP gwth 90-Present = 0.6%
JPN RGDP Y/YJPN GDP Deflator Y/Y15%5%0%-5%-10?
Avg RGDP gwth 90-Present = 1.1% of which prod gwth = 1.0% and emp gwth = 0%Avg GDP Deflator gwth 90-Present = -0.5?949698000204060810
And nominal GDP growth rates have remained below Japanese government rates for most of this period,
creating a persistent upwards pressure on debt burdens.
NGDP Y/Y20%Avg NGDP gwth 90-Present = 0.5%, which was -0.9% below avg JPN LRJPN SR15%5%0%-5%-10%short rate and -2.0% below avg long rate909294969800020406081012
? 2012 Bridgewater Associates, LP20
As discussed, the non-reparations government debt was eroded rapidly through inflation. While the reparations were not techincally imposed until 1921, they effectively existed shortly after the war and it was mostly a question of negotiating how big they would be (the official amount was settled at the start of 1921 and then reduced that spring by about 50%, still a huge sum). Because the reparations were denominated in gold, they held their value until Germany ceased payments in 1922. They were then restrutured several times over the next decade until they were effectively wiped out.
DEU Other Govt Debt 1600?@%01920212223800`0@0 0%01920212223DEU Reparations % GDP
? 2012 Bridgewater Associates, LP31
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