会计部分
财务报表作用:使用公司财务报表的信息及其他相关信息来make economic decision.(外部用途,决定是否投资,推荐,贷款)
Statement of comprehensive income报告所有shareholder transaction的权益变动。Income statement(损益表)报告一段时间内公司的financial performance(revenue,expense,gain,loss)在IFRS下,两者可以分开也可以将Income statement合并到Statement of comprehensive income,类似在GAAP下,公司可以选择在statement of shareholder’s equity里报告comprehensive income。
Statement of change in equity:一段时间内公司权益投资者的投资变动或来源的变化。 Statement of cash flow:公司的现金收付。
Financial statement notes(footnotes):1. Basis of presentation ,as fiscal period,inclusion of consolidated entities.2.accounting method, assumption,estimates,3.additional info as 并购,处置,法律行为,员工福利计划,以外事故,主要客户,关联方,segment of firm。 Management’s commentary(MD&A):nature of business,past performance,future outlook,有些部分是可以不被审计。对于美国publicly held firm要求discuss 趋势,影响公司流动性,资本resource 运作结果的重大事件和不确定性。还要包括:通胀和价格变化的影响,表外债务和contractual obligation 的影响,如购买commitment,根据政策需要管理层作出的重大调整,预测将来的费用或divestiture 审计:
Unqualified opinion :free from material omission and error
qualified opinion:make any exception to accounting principles,需要解释特例 adverse opinion:不公平或实质性与accounting standard不符 disclaimer of opinion:不能发表意见 中期报告,更新数据,不一定要审计。
一、财务报告机制
1.Financial statement elements
A.资产
1)Cash and cash equivalents:90天以内的流动证券。2)Accounts receivable通常有allowance for bad debt expense或allowance for doubtful accounts。3)存货。4)金融资
产。5)prepaid expense。6)property,plant,and equipment,包括累计折旧的抵消资产科目。7)投资in affiliates accounted for 使用股权方式。8)递延税资产。9)无形资产 B.负债
1)Accounts payable and trade payable,2)金融负债,如短期note payable,3)unearned revenue,4)income tax payable,5)长期负债eg,bond payable。6)递延税负债 C.所有者权益
1)capital普通股par value,2)Additional paid-in capital卖出普通股超出par value的收益。3)retained earning累计的分配利润。4)other comprehensive income由于外汇汇兑,minimum pension liability adjustment或unrealized 的投资损益。 D.收入
1)Sales。2)gain日常活动交易产生的资产增加。3)investment income利息和股息收入。
E.费用expense
1)cost of goods sold,2)selling,general and administrative expense,as广告,管理层工资,租金,公用事业。3)折旧和摊销。4)tax expense。5)利息。6)losses,日常活动交易产生的资产减少。
2. 基本等式
资产=负债+所有者权益=负债+contributed capital +ending retained earnings =负债+contributed capital +beginning retained earnings+revenue-expenses-dividends Double-entry accounting一向交易必须记录2个accounts
accrual accounting权责发生制有四类:1)unearned revenue预收,2)Accured revenue应计收入(商品或服务以提供,还未收款),3)prepaid expense预付,4)Accrued expense(应付,已发生还未付)
Journal entries流水分录记录每笔交易,general journal日记薄,general ledger总分类账将分录归到会计科目,期末,initial trial balance初步试算平衡,需要再调整,presented in financial statement。
分析师需要从footnotes和MD&A中得到信息,管理层可能会操纵公司财务表现。
3.财务报告标准
标准制定主体:1)FASB,美国,GAAP。2)IASB,美国以外,IFRS 监管机构:SEC(USA),FSA(UK),很多国家监管机构belong to ICSCO
影响统一的因素:1)不同国家的标准制定和监管在会计处理不同,2)来自于企业及其他受影响方的压力。 1)IASB,IFRS
两个基本性质make financial info useful:1)relevance,能影响economic decision ,对过去的估值和未来的预测,是可预测的或是确定的value,or both。2)faithful
representation,完整、中立、无误。为保证这两点:1)comparability,2)Verifiability,3)Timelines,4)Understandability
Measurement base:历史成本法history cost,amortized cost(历史成本通过折旧,摊销,depletion,impairment调整后),current cost,realizable value可变现价值,present value(PV),fair value(公允价值,双方认可)。 限制和假设:A.限制:cost-benefit tradeoff,user的gain from info必须高于presenting cost。Non-quantifiable info不能直接从财务报表获得。B.假设:权责发生制,持续经营going concern。
IFRS,IAS:1)要求的报表:balance sheet,statement of comprehensive income,cash flow statement,statement of change in owner’ equity,explanatory notes包括会计政策summary。2)general feature:Fair presentation,going concern basis,accrual basis,consistency,materiality(无misstatement和omission),aggregation,no offsetting(不能将资产与负责抵消,收入与expense抵消),frequency,comparative info(之前的数据)3)报表组成:1)classified balance sheet,2)minimum info on face of报告,3)comparative info(之前的比较) 2)GAAP,FASB IASB,IFRS List income and expense related to performance 资产是a resource a future economic benefit is expected to flow GAAP,FASB 包含revenue,expense,gain,loss,comprehensive income 资产是future economic benefit 大部分资产不允许upward valuation 使用reconciliation statement表述不同会计标准。 二、Understanding Income Statement
1. income statement
Revenue-expense=net income IASB,IFRS 可作为other comprehensive income与statemen of comprehensive income一起报,或分别报 Gain and loss:可能是经营活动产生,也可能不是,如变卖设备,sales price-book value。 Discontinued operations非持续经营项目---在收入表中单独列出来,显示税后数据,列在continued operations的后面;之前的income statement需要将discontinued operation分出来restated。在measurement date(formal plan的处理时间),需要计入估计loss on the phaseout period(formal plan的时间到实际处理资产的时间) and the sale of business。在分析future earning时,不应考虑discontinued operation。
Unusual or infrequent items(sale of asset or part of business的损益,impairment,write-off,write-down,restructuring cost)---和continuing operations放在一起!因此是税前上报的
Extraordinary items—both Unusual and infrequent items,(asset expropriation,债务提前偿还的损益,为保险的自然损益) IASB,IFRS 不允许separate from operating result the income statement GAAP,FASB Report separately in the income statement, 显示税后数据,列在continued operations的后面; GAAP,FASB 规定一样,但公司可以选择在statement of shareholders’ equity报告comprehensive income 2.收入的确认:
IASB,IFRS GAAP,FASB Goods:风险与利益转移,无继续控制管Good and service:Arrangement between理,可计量,有可能的economic benefit,买家和卖家,商品已发出或服务已render,价格可以确定,卖家reasonably 成本可计量 Service:可计量,有可能的economic benefit,完成进度可度量,发生的和完成的成本可计量 Long-term 合同:当结果可以reliably 估计,使用percentage-completion(更激进主观),相应的确认费用和profit;当结果不可估计,按发生成本确认收入,profit到完成时确认。If loss expected,立即确认 易货交易Barter:按没有关联的其他类型的非易货交易fair value sure可以收到钱。 Long-term 合同:当结果可以reliably 估计,使用percentage-completion,相应的确认费用和profit;当结果不可估计,收入,费用,profit都到完成时确认completed-contract method。If loss expected,立即确认 易货交易Barter:当有历史经验时,以fair value;否则按换出资产的carry value确认 分期销售:1)确定可收,一般方法,2)无法估计,installment method收到时才确认。3)highly uncertainty,recovery method,收到的超过成本才确认。
3.费用的确认
Matching 原则,与产生收入的对应。此外,期间费用as administrative cost
1)存货expense认定:FIFO和weighted average GAAP和IFRS都认可,LIFO,GAAP认可,IFSB不允许。 2)折旧Expense认定:
Straight-line depreciation=(cost-residual value) /useful life
accelerated depreciation(有些资产在早期产生benefit多),DDB(double-declining balance)=2/useful life*(cost –accumulated depreciation)
3)Amortization expense(无形资产),一般用直线法,indefinite live as goodwill,不摊销,但需要至少每年test impairment。Impairment部分需确认expense。 4)bad debt expense & warranty expense 确认:在销售当期确认。
费用的加速或推迟确认(增加current 利润,更激进),analyst需要考虑确认方法改变的原因,与行业内其他公司比较
4. changes inaccounting standards
1)Accounting principles,eg LIFO to FIFO,需要retrospective application相应的调整currently present的前期报告。
2)accounting estimates由于新信息产生的management judgment的变化,不需要调整之前的报表,一般不影响现金流。
3)prior-period adjustment,从不正确的会计方法转到GAAP或FIRS接受的,或更正之前的任何错误。需要restate all 前期in the current statement,披露调整的nature和对net income的影响。一般含错误或新会计方法,不影响现金流,错误显示内控weak。
5.EPS
Reported only for common stock
Simple capital structure,只有普通股。只report,basic EPS
Complex capital structure,含有潜在稀释证券,as 期权,权证,可转债等。必须分别计算basic and diluted EPS。 1)基本每股收益
Basic EPS=(NI-Pref. Div)/(weighted average of common shrs outstanding)
---平时说的每股股利都是指的是普通股的股利!和优先股没有关系!而且是发行在外的—outstanding shares!
---优先股的股利一般都是固定的!
注意股票分割split和stock divided,对shareholder占的比重没有影响。仅仅适用于分割和stock divided发放之前的outstanding share!非常重要!在调整的时候要将发放之前的所有股数按照注意股票分割和stock divided进行调整!发行之后的股票不进行调整!
2)摊薄每股收益 diluted EPS
如果是反摊薄(增加EPS),则如何处理?
复杂资本结构的四个组成部分:a)可转换债券;b)可转换优先股;c)股票期权;d)认股权证warrant
总体分为以下两类:
I. a和b为一类---如果摊薄,则会对利润有调整---分别调整为:a-可转换债券的税
后利息;b-可转换优先股股利 II. c和d为一类---采用库藏股法进行股票数目的调整,但是对利润没有调整 1. 可转换证券包括可转换债券和可转换优先股,实际上也是一种期权,他们两者
的处理相似!---其区别仅仅是在于:对NI的影响是否是税后数据---对于convertible bond来说,如果是dilutive,则其税后利息费用将不再是利息费用,
因此要将税后利息费用加回去;对于convertible preferred stock来说,如果是dilutive,则可转换优先股的股利将不再发放,应该加回去!
2. 股票期权和认股权证的处理是一样的---都是使用库藏股法!---以平均市价进行
回购!! 分子=net income-preferred dividend+可转债除税利息+可转优先股股利
分母=weighted average shares+可转优先股股份+可转债股份+为期权发行的股份 (执行的份数-执行后收入可以买的份数=(当前价格-执行价格)*份数/当前价格),使
用平均价格而不是年末价格,如果平均价格小于执行价格,则不计算到分母中。 认股权证和股票期权的区别和联系:
认股权证一般不单独发行,而是附在债券上一起发行!认股权证一定是公司发行;认股权证在被执行的时候,公司必须增发新股;公司在发行新股的时候会发一些认股权证给投资银行,作为其承销服务的一种补偿!股票期权可以是由个人发行!期权在被执行的时候,公司的股票的数量没有发生变化!
判断是摊薄还是反摊薄就是看,转换成普通股的时候会增加EPS还是减小EPS! 要再次阅读P68-72中的四个例题!---特别要注意stock option被转换成普通股的情况---要使用库藏股法进行计算增加大的股数。
6.其他
Common-size income statement,以revenue的百分比表示。 Gross profit margin=gross profit/revenue(gross profit=revenue-COGS) Net profit margin=net income/revenue
每个会计区间结束,NI都要通过Retain Earnings账户加到stockholders’ equity账户中去。但是不是所有的账户交易都会在income statement中报告---比如
1. 增发和回购股票影响SE账户但是不通过NI; 2. Dividend的发放影响SE但是不影响NI;
3. Other comprehensive income影响SE-equity账户但是不影响NI
Available-for-sales securities是那种不会持有到期的股票或者是可在近期卖掉的股票,在资产负债表中以fair value—其卖之前的盈亏(unrealized gain and loss)不会在NI中体现但是会在OCI中反映!
Comprehensive income:包括两部分:NI(包括operating income和非主营业务收入两大类!!!)和other comprehensive income OCI(包括四类:1. Foreign currency translation gains or loss;2. Adjustment for minimum pension liability; 3. Unrealized gain or loss from hedging derivatives; 4. Unrealized gains or losses from available-for-sales security )---这两部分描述了业主股东的contribution和distribution以外的所有影响所有者权益的变化!要加深理解!
IFRS下,公司可以选择report long-lived asset at fair value,不是历史cost,这种情况下fair value的变化也在OCI中反映。
三、Understanding balance sheet
可以得到流动性(满足短期偿债),偿付能力(长期债务),distribution to 股东的能力。 显示的价值多样,有历史成本,fair value,amortized cost
分流动和非流动形式,classified balance sheet,陈述更relevant和reliable是liquidity-based format Balance account sheet ASSETS BS Liability account BS Equity account Cash and equivalent Acc. Receivable Inventory Prepaid expense Investment Acc. Payable Accrued expenses Unearned revenue Notes payable Bond payable Capital stock Additional capital stock Treasury stock Retained earnings Accumulated other comprehensive income注意!! PPE Intangible assets Deferred tax assets Pension assets Capital lease obligations Pension liability Deferred tax liability 1.Current assets
指现金或可以在一年或一个经营周期内convert to cash or used up。
1)Cash and equivalent,金融资产在BS表reported at amortized cost or fair value 2)marketable securities可在公开市场交易,需在footnote中披露投资 3)accounts receivable(以net realizable value,based on 坏账expense)
4)inventories(原材料,在产品,产成品)存货成本:购买价+convertion cost+到达当前位置和状态的成本,不包括abnormal waste of material and labor,overhead, storage cost,administrative overhead and selling cost。 Standard costing,retail method
5)other current assets(prepaid expenses,deferred tax assets)
Deferred tax:所得税expense与应交所得税的差额,if 本期确认的所得税费用>应付税款,递延税负债,if 本期确认的所得税expense<应付税款,则递延税资产
2.Current liability
指须在一年或一个经营周期内偿还的,which is higher 1)Accounts payable
2)notes payable and current portion of long-term debt
3)Accrued liability已在income statement中确认的费用但还没实际due的,as利息费用确认
4)unearned revenue
3.Non-Current assets
1)PPE:IFRS可以用cost model or revaluation model,GAAP只能用cost model
cost model用amortized cost=历史成本-累计折旧,amortization,depletion,impairment loss,历史成本=购买价+使之可以使用的必要成本as 运输费,安装费
test for impairment,if 损害即carrying value>recoverable amount时,IFRS下,recoverable amount=max(fair value-selling cost,PV即value in use),下调价值并确认loss。Loss恢复在IFRS下可以,但GAAP不可以。 2)investment property
3)Intangible assets:分为identifiable无形资产可以分别获得or来自转让的权力或privilege,as专利,商标,版权。Unidentifiable无形资产,不能分别得到,无限期,as goodwill。内部creat,研发费用记录成本GAAP,IFRS需区分研究(expense cost)和开发阶段(capitalize cost)
注意goodwill的定义!excess of purchase price over fair value!购买价格超出其fair value的部分---不进行摊销,以后不进入BS表,每年进行测试test是否有impaired---公司可以进行利润操控---降低实物资产的价值,提高goodwill,这样可以减少折旧,从而增加净利润!
公司内部形成的goodwill要按照产生的费用进行费用化!如重组了其养老基金,则该goodwill直接expensed as incurred!
所以分析师在进行分析时,应该将goodwill从BS以及将goodwill的impairment从NI表中扣除后再做比较 4)financial assets
History cost,unlisted equity investments,loans and receivables 以amortized的价格记持有到期的held-to-maturity
Mark to market---MTM是指将资产和负债按照fair value进行计入的方式,Trading securities,derivative instruments,Available for sales, Trading securities,Available for sales, derivative instruments 短期交易获利 Held-to-maturity 不会持有到期,也持有到期 不会短期买卖 Fair value--MTM Amortized cost---face value-unamortized discount或者=face value + unamortized premium Interest; Realized gain or loss BS Fair value---MTM NI Dividends; Interest Realized gain or loss; Dividends; Interest; Realized gain or loss Unrealized gain or 对于没有实现的loss gain或者loss会在OCI中体现,而不是在NI中体现 表外信息披露---off-balance-sheet disclosure—以下信息之footnote披露:
1. Accounting policy, including revenue recognition, other accounting methods and
judgment used 2. Estimation of uncertainty, including key assumptions that pose a significant risk 3. Debt agreement terms 4. Lease and off-balance-sheet financing 5. Business segments
6. Contingent assets and liabilities 7. Pension plans
BS上的资产的金额不能用于评估公司的价值! Financial statement footnote应该包括如下信息:
? Basis for measurement
? Carrying value of inventory by category ? ……..见note 88页
4.Non-current liability
1)long-term financial liability,as 银行贷款,notes payable,bond payable,衍生品 如果不是按面值发行,一般以amortized cost记账,有时按fair value记(held for trading liability,衍生品liability,有衍生品hedge的非衍生品liability) 2)deferred tax liability确认的>应付的
5.Owners’ equity
1)Contributed capital,common shareholder contribute的资本,par value。
Authorized share按公司article of incorporation发行的,Issued share实际发行的,outstanding share流通股=发行股-reacquired by the firm(treasury stock)。
2)Preferred stock,可以归为权益(non-redeemable)或负债(calls for mandatory redemption in fixed amount)
3)Non-controlling interest(minority interest):按比例分配到的非完全由parent 公司所有的subsidiary的少数股份。US GAAP 对于minority interest的处理可以在liability部分或者equity部分或者位于liability和equity之间的mezzanine部分进行体现!!!! 4)Retained earnings,累积未分配利润
5)Treasury stock,库存股份,由发行公司reacquired not yet retired,没有投票权和股息
6)accumulated other comprehensive income,as issuing stock,reacquiring stock,paying dividend。包括了除去公司在NI中体现的正常交易产生利润以及除去股东交易如增发新股,treasury stock回购,发放股利等以外的其他对OE产生影响的 Common-size BS ,as a percentage of total assets。
局限性:会计标准不同,行业不同,需要判断力,BS表只表示某一时点。
四、Understanding the cash flow statement
1、CFO,CFI,CFF
三张主要表格中,只有现金流量表是根据现金收付制进行编制,其他资产负债表,利润表都是根据权责发生制进行编制—accrual basis GAAP的规定:
CFO:流入: cash collected from customers,interest and dividend received,Sale proceeds from trading security。流出:cash paid to员工和supplier,cash paid for其他expense,acquisition of trading security,利息paid,税paid。
CFI:流入:sales proceeds from fixed assets, from debt and equity 投资,本金received from loans made to others。流出:acquisition of fixed assets,ofdebt and equity,Loans loans made to others
CFF:流入:债券发行的本金,股票发行的收入;流出:债券paid的本金,payment to reacquire stock,股息paid to shareholder
Trading stock的购买和收入属于CFO;Interest和divided的收入都属于CFO,----收到的Div是CFO,千万别弄混!但是interest的支出是属于CFO,而Dividend的支出则是属于CFF。一定要注意区别!购买债券是CFI但是债券利息的收入则是CFO;向他人借款的本金是属于CFF,但是支付的利息是属于CFO!向股东支付股利是CFF
非现金的investing和financing行为不会在CF中体现出来。如卖方提供信贷购买房地产,或者debt和equity的互换。但是这些non-cash的transaction要做footnote或者supplementary schedule中说明;
所有支付的tax都是CFO,同时包括investing和financing交易中产生的tax都属于CFO! 流动负债中的应付票据属于CFF,不应该反应在CFO中!重要!
IFRS:利息和股息收入可以CFO或CFI,股息和利息支付可以CFO或CFF, tax 除非associated with 投资或融资,否则也CFO
2.直接法:从收入开始
1)CFO不考虑折旧
A.Cash collections from customers:---a.net sales;b.changes in AR;c.customer cash advances B.Cash paid to suppliers----a.COGS; b.Change in inventory, c.Change in AP; d.Change in other liabilities
C.Cash paid for operating expenses:a.SGA; b.Prepaid expenses; c.Changes in accrued liabilities;d.Wages;e.Wages payable
D.Cash paid for interests:a.Interest expenses----from IS; b.Interest payable---from BS; c.证券的折价溢价账户
E.Cash paid for taxes:a.Tax expenses---IS; b.Tax payable----BS; c.Deferred tax---BS
2)CFI:由于投资活动导致的gross asset accounts的变动,as PPE,intangible assets,investment security
期初总资产+cash paid for新资产-gross cost of assets sold=期末总资产, Cash from asset sold=book value+gain(-loss)=decrease in assets +gain on sale
。只考虑相关assets的book value-----也就是折旧前的价值----不考虑折旧!因为这些depreciation,amortization不是现金费用;Gain from sales of land账户,仅仅是卖出资产时候的增值部分,不包括本身资产的book value!!!这个是一个概念理解的问题,请务必记住!
3)CFF:net cash flow from creditor=new borrowing-principal amount repaid
Net cash flow from shareholders=new equity issued- share repurchases- cash dividend paid
3.间接法---从NI开始
1)直接法CFO
和间接法的区别:由于直接法是从销售开始,所以IS表中的那些因素还没有计算在内,所以IS表的内容和BS的相关内容必须都要考虑进去:比如IS中的wages和BS中的wages payable要结合考虑,IS中的interest和BS中的interest payable也要结合考虑对现金流的影响。而对于间接法来说,IS中的wages,interest等已经在计算NI的时候计算考虑进去了,所以在间接法计算的时候就不再考虑这些因素了,仅仅看BS中这些因素的变化对现金流的变化的影响即可!
调整项目:depreciation and amortization + ,deferred income tax +, increase in accounts receivable -,increase in inventory -,increase in accounts payable +, increase in accured liability +,decrease in prepaid expense + 步骤:S1:从NI开始
S2,减去gain或加上loss 从投资和融资产生的现金流
S3,加上所有的noncash charge to income(折旧amortization)减去all noncash component of revenue
S4加上或减去BS表operating accounts:
减去operating 资产账户增加,加上operating资产账户减少 加上operating负债账户增加,减去operating负债账户减少 2)计算CFI和CFF与直接法相同。
两种方法结果相同,直接法信息多,间接法体现净NI和operating cash flow的差异,GAAP,IFRS鼓励直接法 IASB,IFRS IFRS对reconcile没有要求; 在两种方法中,支付的利息和税都必须分别披露 GAAP,FASB 使用直接法仍要披露必要adjustment reconcile to NI to cash flow from 经营活动 利息和税可以再现金流表里report,也可以在footnotes中披露 4. 间接法 to 直接法
1)Cash collections from customers:从Sales开始,减去(加上)应收账户增加(减少);加上(减去)unearned revenue增加(减少)
2)Cash payments to supplier:从COGS开始,如果COGS包括折旧和摊销,则add,减去应付账户增加,加上存货增加减去存货的write off
5.分析
CFO为正可能是earning也可能是减少了noncash working,earning 明显超过CFO表明aggressive 会计方法,as较早确认收入,推迟确认费用。 Common-size cash flow statement as a percentage of revenue
自由现金流量----是指可供所有investor分配的现金流量---包括equity owner和debt holder
FCFF(free cash flow to the firm)=NI+NCC(non-cash depreciation/amortization)+interest*(1-T)-FC investment-WC investment
charges---
FCFF=CFO+ interest *(1-T)-FC Investment,IFRS下无需调整利息,需add back 股息paid if 将之放入到了CFO
Free cash flow to equity---FCFE=CFO-FC Investment+ Net borrowing(即发行的债-偿还的债) 现金流比率
Cash flow to revenue=CFO/net revenue Cash return on assets= CFO/ average total assets Cash return on equity= CFO/average total equity Cash to income=CFO/operating income
Cash flow per share= (CFO-preferred div)/weighted average number of common shares Debt coverage = CFO/ total debt
Interest coverage=EBIT/interest payment = (CFO+ interest paid + taxes paid)/interest paid Reinvestment= CFO/ cash paid for long-term assets Debt payment= CFO/cash long-term debt repayment Dividend payment=CFO/dividend paid
Investing and financing=CFO/cash outflows from investing and financing activities
五、财务分析技术
比率分析
作用:项目未来盈利和现金流,评估公司的flexiblity,管理层performance,公司和行业的变化,与竞争者比较。
Limitation:独立使用not useful,会计处理不同时不同公司的comparison无用,跨行业公司没有可比性,所有的ratio都得考虑,难以确定target ratio或可比值。
1. Activity Ratio
Assets utilization or turnover ratio
1)receivable turnover=annual sale/ average receivable,days of sales outstanding =365 / receivable turnover
2)inventory turnover=CDGS/average inventory,days of inventory on hand= 365/ inventory turnover
3)payable turnover= purchase/average trade payable, number of days of payables=365/ payable turnover ratio
Receivable TO,Inventory TO和payable TO的区别和联系---三者结合可得cash conversion cycle
=days of sales outstanding+days of inventory on hand-number of days of payables太高意味着excessive capital investment in sale process 4)total Assets TO=revenue/average total assets Fixed Asset TO=revenue/average net fixed assets
Working capital TO=revenue/avg. working capital(Working capital=流动资产-流动负债)
2. Liquidity Ratio
Current ratio=流动资产/流动负债
quick ratio=(现金+marketable securities +receivables)/流动负债 现金比率=(现金+marketable securities)/流动负债。 Current ratio, quick ratio和cash ratio一组非常类似
Defensive interval=(现金+marketable securities +receivables)/average daily expenditure
3. Solvency ratio
1)Long-term debt-to-equity,total debt-to-equity,debt ratio=total debt/total asset,financial leverage=total assets/total equity
Debt-to-equity= total debt/ total shareholders’ equity反映依靠债务融资的比率,total debt=长期负债+短期附息债
Debt-to-capital=D/(D+E)所谓capital,即负债和权益之和! Debt to assets= total debt/total assets
2)Financial leverage—财务杠杆--=avg. total assets/avg. total equity 是平均总资产除以平均总权益—顾名思义,是先有的权益所能撬动的总的资产的数量---仅此叫做财务杠杆!
利息保障倍数interest coverage=EBIT /interest payment,所谓EBIT即operating income即operating profit
Fixed charge coverage=(EBIT+lease payment)/(interest payment+ lease payment)
4. Profitability ratio
1)margin
Net profit margin=NI/revenue
Gross profit=net sale-COGS,operating profit=EBIT,NI=earnings after tax before dividend,total capital=long-term debt+short-term debt+ common and preferred equity=total asset Gross profit margin=gross profit/revenue,可以通过提高价格或降低成本来提高 Operating profit margin= EBIT/ revenue或使用EBITDA Pretax margin=EBT/revenue 2)return
ROA的计算公式实际上并不统一,有多种不同的公式 ROA=NI/Avg. total Assets
ROA=(NI+ interest*(1-T))/avg. total assets Operating Return OA=EBIT/avg.total Assets
Return on total capital(ROTC)=EBIT/ avg.total asset Return on equity(ROE)=NI/avg.total equity
Return on common equity=NI-preferred dividend/ average common equity
5.杜邦分析系统:
ROE=NI/equity进行扩展=NI/revenue*revenue/equity即net profit margin*equity turnover ROE=NI/sales*sales/assets*assets/equity=net profit margin×assets turnover×leverage ratio leverage ratio即financial leverage即equity multiplier,leverage multiplier 进一步扩展:
ROE=(NI/EBT)*(EBT/EBIT)*(EBIT/Revenue)*(Revenue/Total Assets)*(Total Assets/Total Equity) 税务负担×利息负担×Ebit margin×资产周转率×financial leverage
6.Common equity
1)P/E price to earning ,EPS earnings per share, cash flow per share, EBIT per share,EBITDA per share。
2) dividend,retention rate(RR)=(net income available to common-dividend declared)/net income available to common=1-dividend payout ratio
Dividend payout ratio=dividends declared/ net income available to common Sustainable growth rate g=RR*ROE
Net income per employee,sales per employee适合服务和咨询公司;growth in the same-store sale餐饮零售业不考虑开业的new location,sales per square foot 3)Business risk
Coefficient variation(CV)标准差/期望,CV sales,CV operating income,CV net income Capital adequacy,VAR,reserve requirement,liquid asset requirement,net interest margin。
其他:Credit analysis,segment analysis(business,geographic)。用来预测:ratio analysis(common-size),sensitivity analysis,scenario analysis,simulation
六、Analysis of inventory,long-lived assets
1.inventory
1)成本
IFRS与GAAP都采用Product cost作为存货成本,包括:1)purchase cost-trade discounts and rebates, 2)Conversion cost including labor and overhead, 3)其他成本necessary to bring 存货 to present location and condition.资本化成本,expense的确认is delayed直到存货卖出,收入确认.
期间费用(非资本化):1)abnormal waste of材料,人力,管理,2)storage cost,3)administrative overhead,4) selling cost IASB,IFRS 允许的方法Specific identification, FIFO, Weighted average cost,不允许LIFO BS表上,lower of cost or net realizable GAAP,FASB 允许的方法Specific identification, FIFO, LIFO,Weighted average cost BS表上,lower of cost or market value 如果NRV比BS表低,则write down并在IS表中确认loss,如果价值恢复则在IS表中减少COGS确认gain。恢复后的价值不能超过write down前的。 计算方法改变:表明改变后将提供更reliable 和relevant的信息。 如果market比BS表低,则write down并在IS表中确认loss,如果价值恢复不允许write up 计算方法改变:说明why is preferable FIFO方法下,不论存货的价格怎么变化,都能更好反应存货的价值!因此FIFO更好的反应了inventory;而LIFO则是更好的反应了cogs的价值!对periodic和perpetual inventory system下FIFO结果一样,LIFO结果不一样。
Net realizable value=expected sales price-estimated selling cost- completion cost, Market一般=replacement cost,不能高于NRV,or低于NRV-normal profit margin,如果replacement>NRV,则market=NRV,if replacement 2)Write down影响inventory turnover,有些行业允许比历史成本价高report存货,农业,林业,贵金属etc,以NRV,在IS表中确认gain,NRV为市场价格,或近期成交价。 3)披露,在footnotes 内容:cost flow method,total carrying value,carrying value= fair value- selling cost,确认为COGS的存货cost,writedown,reversal,carrying value pledged as collateral。 计算方法改变需retrospectively recast 之前的财务报表,累计的影响在年初的retained earning里调节。特例:如果改成LIFO则不需调整。 对ratio的影响:A. profitability,LIFO使得 COGS高,gross profit和net profit低. B. liquidity,LIFO时BS上的存货价值低,working capital低,quick ratio无影响,C.Activity, 存货周转率高,D. solvency, assets低,使得debt-to-equity高。 分析:存货周转too high,可能not carrying enough 存货满足客户需要,也可能是发生了write down,存货周转相对与销售增长的速度,高存货周转+低销售增长说明存货数量不够。 FIFO inventory = LIFO inventory + LIFO reserve---一般在附注里面显示! 可以根据LIFO reserve在年初和年末的变化计算出本年的cogs!!!--非常重要! COGS fifo=purchases + BEG INV fifo- END INV fifo-----FIFO下的cogs等于本年度购买+fifo下年初的存货-fifo下年末的存货; BEG INV fifo=BEG INV lifo+ LIFO Reserve beg END INV fifo=END INV lifo + LIFO Reserve end 结论:COGS fifo = COGS lifo – LIFO reserve----这是从Cogs 的计算从LIFO变成FIFO的过程。如果FIFO变成LIFO,则是一个完全不同的过程:需要估算: COGS lifo=COGS fifo + BI fifo×inflation rate Inflation rate=change in LIFO reserve/FIFO inventory beg 分析师要采用LIFO下的计算进行profitability的分析,而要使用FIFO下的数据进行liquidity,资产,或者权益的分析;分析运营能力activity的时候最好采用FIFO和LIFO相结合的方式,使用LIFO下的cogs,使用FIFO下的inventory----这种方法叫做current cost method;分析偿债能力时,要使用LIFO分析NI同时使用FIFO的数据进行equity的分析 计算current ratio的时候,使用FIFO下的资产,因为更加贴近现实; 计算inventory turnover的时候,使用LIFO下的cogs更接近事实! 从LIFO的BS想FIFO的BS进行调整:分为两种情况 1. 当inventory 上升时 a. 在BS 的左边,Inventory 加上LIFO reserve—assets增加; b. 在RE上加上LIFO reserve 2. 当inventory下降时 a. 在BS 的左边,Inventory 加上LIFO reserve—assets增加; b. 在deferred tax liability账户上加上LIFO reserve×T,在RE上加上LIFO× (1-T) 较来决定以什么价格进行存货的计入。 在LIFO方法下, 1. 当价格上升时,就直接采用原来价格计算,不会将价格上调,则对于存货的估 计没有improve; 2. 当价格下降时,采用了LCM将存货的价值下调,则提供了对存货的估计! 在价格上升和growing inventory balance的情况下, 1. FIFO的cogs小,inventory大,CA/CL大,利润NI大,tax大,导致现金流CF小; 2. LIFO的cogs大,inventory小,CA/CL小,利润NI小,Tax小,导致现金流CF大! Warning sign和detect 方法:1)aggressive revenue recognition:提早确认收入。2)CFO和earnings的增长率不同,如果earning增长但CFO下降或为负,则说明收入确认早或延迟确认费用。 Cash flow earning index:operating cash flow/net income<1or更低,应该怀疑 不正常的销售增长和存货增长 2.会计欺诈 现金流操纵:通过misrepresent公司产生现金流的能力by 将融资活动归为经营活动。 延期付款:暂时增加CFO by 延期付款。Day’s sales in accounts payable=(accounts payable/COGS)*number of days 应付账户:推迟应付账户的现金流,也可能从第三方融资。 应收账户证券化:公司可以立即将应收项目通过借款变成现金,或将之证券化,再卖掉。 回购股票以抵消稀释 Equity multiplier:资产/Equity multiplier=equity