Approaches and Methods in Foreign Language Teaching
Warm-up
The picture of methodological ambition and disappointment
Eric Hawkins (1987) lists over 40 ?names of the game? and here are some of them:
The Reform Method The Natural Method The Rational Method The Correct Method The Sensible Method The Imitative Method The Analytical Method The Conversational Method The Anti-classical Method
The Anti-grammatical Method The Anti-translational Method The Eclectic Method
The Dual Language Method
Questions for discussion:
What is the “best method” for foreign language teaching? Is there a method that works in every classroom?
1. The Grammar-Translation Method
1.1. Definition
The Grammar-Translation Method is a method of foreign or second language teaching which uses translation and grammar study as the main teaching and learning activities. At one time it was called Classical Method since it was first used in the teaching of the classical languages of Latin and Greek.
1.2. Theoretical Basis 1.2.1. Theory of language a. Traditional linguistics
The written form of language was superior to the spoken form. b. Comparative Historical Linguistics
The classical languages were found to be very much similar to the modern Indo-European languages. All languages originated from one language and were ruled by a common grammar.
1.2.2. Theory of learning
a. Faculty Psychology
The theory of learning underlying the G-T Method was Faculty Psychology which believed that the mind of human beings had various faculties which could be trained separately. Understanding and memorization of complicated grammatical rules of languages were regarded as important means of developing mentality.
b. Classical humanism.
Viewed from the nature and purpose of education, the G-T Method was an expression of classical humanism. The language was regarded as a body of esteemed knowledge to be learned, with an emphasis on intellectual rigor.
1.3. Main features
1.3.1. Emphasis on the second language grammar
1.3.2. Translation as principal practice technique 1.3.3. Reading and writing as major focus
1.3.4. Little or no systematic attention paid to speaking or listening 1.3.5. Students? native language as the main medium of instruction 1.3.6. Sentence as basic unit of language teaching and learning 1.3.7. Accuracy rather than fluency emphasized
1.4. Techniques
1.4. 1. Reading
1.4. 2. Translation
1.4. 3. Deductive teaching of grammar 1.4. 4. Analysis and comparison 1.4. 5. Memorization
1.4. 6. Reading comprehension questions
1.4. 7. Written work
1.5. Comments 1.5. 1. Advantages
1) Translation from one language to another plays a certain part in language learning. Comparison between two languages helps students to have a better understanding of the meaning of abstract words and complicated sentences.
2) Systematic study of grammatical rules plays an important role in fostering students' ability of reading comprehension and producing grammatically correct sentences. It has special importance for students in teachers' colleges for whom a good mastery of the grammar system of the target language will help them in their future teaching.
3) The focus on understanding literary texts provides the situation in which reading and writing abilities are well trained.
4) The Grammar-Translation Method makes few demands on teachers although it often creates frustration for students. It is relatively easy to apply.
1.5. 2. Disadvantages
1) Overemphasis on translation can never emancipate the learners from dependence on the first language.
2) Knowing a large number of grammatical rules can not ensure that students can use them appropriately in real communicative situation.
3) It puts too much emphasis on reading and writing and neglects listening and speaking. In language communication, all the four skill are needed.
4) The texts are mostly taken from literary works. The language learned often doesn't meet the practical needs of the learners.
5) Memorizing grammar rules and bilingual word lists does not motivate students to actively communicate in the target language.
Review: True or false?
2. The Audiolingual Method
2.1. Definition
The Audiolingual Method is a method of foreign or second language teaching which emphasizes the teaching of speaking and listening before reading and writing. It uses dialogues as the main form of language presentation and drills as the main training techniques. Mother tongue is discouraged in the classroom. It is also called aural-oral method or mim-mem method.
2.2. Theoretical basis
2.2. 1. Theory of language: Structural linguistics 2.2. 2. Theory of learning: Behaviourism
2.2. 3. Five slogans (Moulton, 1961)
The five slogans express the basic theoretical principles of the Audiolingual Method. They reflect the influence of structural linguistics and behaviourist psychology in language teaching. a. Language is speech, not writing;
b. A language is what its native speakers say, not what someone thinks they ought to say; c. Languages are different; d. A language is a set of habits;
e. Teach the language, not about the language;
2.3. Main features
1. Separation of language skills into listening, speaking, reading and writing, with emphasis on the teaching of listening and speaking before reading and writing; 2. Use of dialogues as the chief means of presenting the language;
3. Emphasis on certain practice techniques: mimicry, memorization and pattern drills; 4. Discouraging the use of the mother tongue in the classroom; 5. Use of language laboratory.
2.4. Techniques
Dialogues and drills form the basis of audiolingual classroom practice. The use of drills and pattern practice is a distinctive feature of the Audiolingual Method. Various kinds of drills are used for different purposes. 1. Repetition drill
2. Simple substitution drill (or single--slot substitution drill ) 3. Progressive drill (or multiple-slot substitution drill ) 4. Transformation drill 5. Question-and-answer drill 6. Expansion drill
7. Clause combination drill ( or integration ) 8. Backward build-up drill ( or backchaining ) 9. Chain drill
10. Mini- dialogue ( rejoinder or transposition ) 11. Completion
12. Use of minimal pairs ( sound discrimination drills )
2.5. Comments 2.5.1. Criticisms
Its theoretical basis was found to be weak. Techniques used are also found faulty.
Learners are viewed as organisms that can be directed by skilled training techniques to produce responses.
The teacher's role is central and active. It is the teacher who always dominates the class. Materials in the AM are primarily teacher-oriented.
2.5.2. Contributions
First, the audiolingual theory is probably the first language teaching theory that openly claims to be derived from linguistics and psychology.
Second, it attempts to make language learning accessible to large groups of ordinary learners. Third, it stresses syntactical progression and uses pattern drills to help the students gain control over grammatical structures, which is a much more interesting way of learning grammar than working through written exercises.
Fourth, it leads to the development of simple techniques of varied, graded, and intensive practice of specific features of the language, and more scientifically selected and systematically arranged materials and structural patterns to go with.
Lastly, it develops the separation of the language skills into a pedagogical device.
3. The Communicative Approach
3.1. Definition
Communicative Language Teaching, also called the Communicative Approach, is an approach to foreign or second language teaching which emphasizes that the goal of language teaching is communicative competence.
3.2. Theory of language
Functional linguistics is concerned with language as an instrument of social interaction rather than as a system that is viewed in isolation. Characteristics of a communicative view of language: a. Language is a system for the expression of meaning.
b. The primary function of language is for interaction and communication. c. The structure of language reflects its functional and communicative uses.
d. The primary units of language are not merely its grammatical and structural features, but categories of functional and communicative meaning as exemplified in discourse. (Richards & Rodgers, 1986:71)
3.3. Theory of learning
Language is used for communication
More concerned with meaning than with structure
Language is best learned through use in social context.
Yalden: emphasis on getting one's meaning across or understanding the speaker rather than on formal accuracy.
Attempts to follow the natural acquisition process in the classroom. (Krashen)
Fully successful language acquisition is a by-product of communication, of negotiating meaning. Traditional attitude can be described as the belief that we learn and teach languages in order to be able to communicate, while the new approach assumes that in order to learn a language we have to try to communicate in it.
3.4. Main features
David Nunan (1991:279) offers five points to characterize the Communicative Approach: 3.4.1. An emphasis on learning to communicate through interaction in the target language. 3.4.2. The introduction of authentic texts into the learning situation.
3.4.3. The provision of opportunities for learners to focus, not only on language but also on the learning process itself.
3.4.4. An enhancement of the learner?s own personal experiences as important contributing elements to classroom learning.
3.4.5. An attempt to link classroom language learning with language activation outside the classroom.
3.5. Techniques
Advocates the integration of skills. The 4 skills are rarely used in isolation outside the classroom in a real sense. There are a variety of ways of integrating language skills in the classroom.
Information-gap activities Guessing games
Exchanging personal information Role play/simulation
3.6. Comments
3.6.1. Reasons for popularity
Wider considerations of what is appropriate as well as what is accurate; A wider range of language, covering texts and conversations as well as sentences; Realistic and motivating language practice;
Uses what learners \
3.6.2. Pedagogical risks
Fossilization of learner's errors. It results from one of its fundamental principles, namely, that it avoids direct correction of speech errors and makes the teacher accept structurally erroneous utterances as well as encouraging the use of communicative strategies.
The loss of motivation for further learning and further linguistic development.
Unclear about how the rules of use can be taught though it emphasizes the importance of teaching the rules of use. After all, classroom setting is different from real-life situation.
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