学的一个分支,研究那些只有通过社会及语境关联因素才能得到解释的语言特性”。综上所述，无论哪一种说法,都离不开社会语言学本质问题的两个方面：一个是语言结构，一个是社会文化语境。社会语言学家试图通过研究两者之间的互动和共变关系,达到揭示语言本质的目的。
8.2 语言变体
语言变体是社会语言学的一个重要术语。语言变体是由具备相同社会特征的人在相同的社会环境中普遍使用的某种语言表现形式。语言变体的表现形式很多，大致可以分为四种类型：标准变体（the standard variety），地域变体( regional / geographical variation) ，社会变体( social variation / sociolect) 和功能变体（registers / functional varieties）。标准语也叫共同语, 如汉语中的普通话。它是在若干方言之上经规范之后的变体, 它已超越了地区的限制, 成为全社会通用的交际手段。同时，它也是官方、教育和大众传播界的工具, 是有威望的语言变体, 成为全社会成员学习和仿效的对象。地域变体由说话人的地域差异产生，如汉语中的上海话和广东话；再如，英国英语、美国英语、澳大利亚英语、印度英语、南非英语等等都属于英语的地域变体。英国英语与美国英语在读音、拼写和句子表达上存在的差异都是地域变体的特征标志。社会变体则由说话人的社会属性(性别、种族、年龄、职业、受教育程度以及宗教信仰等) 差异而产生。具有不同社会属性的人往往会在相同的社会大环境下再次细分为不同的社会阶层，而这些阶层的语言很可能带有自己的特色。美国著名的社会语言学家拉波夫（Labov）发现语言变素[r]是当时纽约市各种层次的话语里体现社会差别的标记，是一个值得研究的语言变素。他于1962年在美国纽约市的三家百货公司：萨克司（Saks）、梅西斯（Macy’s）和克拉恩斯（Kleins）做过一项有趣的调查。这三家商店分别是为上层社会、中产阶级和下层社会服务的，拉波夫认定这三家商店员工的发音是否带有语言变素[r]能反应出其各自所服务的社会阶层的基本情况，于是便设置了如下对话：
Labov: Excuse me, where are the …? Salesperson: Fourth floor. 分别在三家百货商店做了实验，以下是这三家百货商店的员工与他对话录音带[r]的比率：
Saks Macy’s S. Klein 62% 51% 21%
结果显示，上层社会的人发后口盖音[r]的比率最高；中产阶级有仿效上层社会人士的倾向，发[r]音的比例较高。
“语言的功能变体” 又称“语域”。包括三个方面的特征:语场,语旨和语式。语场指的是交际过程正在发生的事情；语旨是指参与交际的人之间的关系；语式说的是以何种方式传递信息。这三种特征构成了整个交际的过程。考虑交际中的人际关系、选择恰当的交流方式，关系到交际的顺利进行。如 Sodium chloride和salt所适用的语场是不同的；在校园里,对资历深、教龄长的老师须用头衔加姓氏的方式称呼，如李教授（Professor Li）；而对好朋友,你可以直呼其名，这种随交际对象的不同而选择称呼是语旨的体现；面对面的口头交际与书面语言的差别则体现了不同语式。
8.3 语言的正式程度
在交际过程中，交际双方应根据其关系的亲疏远近，选择语言的正式程度。 Joos于1962年把语言的正式程度区分为五级：刻板（frozen），正式（formal），磋商（consultative），随便（casual），亲昵（intimate）。这五种风格（style）所适用的场合是不同的，刻板型语言适用于正规的仪式上（如牧师在主持婚礼上所说的话），而亲昵型的风格则适用于家庭成员及亲密朋友之间。以下五句话表达相同的事实，但其表达风格及正式程度各不相同（依次为以上五种类型）：
1） My father has deceased to join the heavenly choir. 2） My father has passed away. 3） My father has died. 4） My dad has died.
5） My old man just kicked the bucket.
本例中语言的正式程度主要是靠表示“死亡”的几个动词及动词短语来体现的。 在不同场合、对不同的讲话对象，应使用正式程度不同的语体来表达。如，在宣布开始用餐时，人们可以根据场合和对象选用以下的五种语体：“开宴了，请入席！”（礼仪的），“请用餐！”（正式的），“我们吃饭吧！”（磋商的），“来吃饭”（随便的），“饭好啦！”（亲昵的）。我们可以把五种语体的正式程度同人们的穿着相类比：“燕尾服” （礼仪的），“西装” （正式的），“茄克＋裤子” （磋商的）“运动服” （随便的）“睡衣” （亲昵的）。
8.4 语言接触
由于贸易、战争、殖民运动等原因，不同的语言之间相互接触。这样一来，便会产生混合语码，这种混合语码称作洋泾浜语（Pidgins）和克里奥尔语（Creole）。两种或多种语言在同一地区还可以共存，这种现象称作双语现象或多语现象。
洋泾浜语是由操不同语言者使用的一种混合语码，是一种词汇和语法上简化了的混合语言。洋泾浜语并非某一团体的母语，仅限于为达到贸易等少数目的时运用。克里奥尔语与洋泾浜语不同，这种混合语言已经成为某一言语社团的母语。这种语言并非为达到某种具体的目的，也非词汇和语法上的单纯简化。现存的克里奥尔语主要是以英语和法语为基础，如夏威夷克里奥尔语（Hawaiian Creole）、牙买加克里奥尔语（Jamaican Creole）、圭亚那克里奥尔语（Guyana Creole）等都是以英语为基础的。
在当今世界的许多国家和地区还存在双语或多语现象，如在加拿大的魁北克省就是英语和法语两种语言同时使用；而在新加坡则有四种官方语言共存：英语（English）、汉语（Mandarin）、塔米尔语（Tamil）和马来语（Malay）。单语现象、双语现象或多语现象是一个国家或地区语言规划的结果。
8.5 禁忌语和委婉语
禁忌语（Taboos）指被人们视为不雅或下流的词语。英语中的禁忌语多与人体的某些私密部位、人体的某些功能、私人事件（如收入、年龄等）、烦恼事（如危机、失业等）以及死亡等有关。委婉语（Euphemisms）是指用来替代可能对听话人产生冒犯或骚扰等的词语表达，如用the underprivileged来替代the poor,用economic recession来替代economic crisis。禁忌语与委婉语犹如一枚硬币的两面，人们放弃一个禁忌语的同时，就要找一个词语去填补这个空缺，于是就创造了一个委婉语，如：
禁忌语 委婉语 die pass away
defecate、urinate wash one’s hands 禁忌语的判定有赖于特定的语境，一些与人体功能相关的词语（如性生活）在许多正式场合是禁忌语，而在医生和病人的对话中这些词语就不再是禁忌语（如有性功能障碍的人看医生时与医生的对话）。禁忌语与委婉语还与特定的文化相关，在一种文化中是禁忌语或委婉语，在另一种文化中可能就不是。在西方国家往往把收入和年龄看成是不可触及的隐私，而在中国这些问题就并没有那么严重。
8.6 语言与文化
语言与文化有密切的关系,这是毋庸置疑的,甚至有一种流行的观点认为语言是文化的载体。但是大多数学者不承认语言能完全决定人们的世界观和思维方式,虽然他们中的许多人在一定程度上接受语言相对论并找到了一些证据。有关语言与文化之间关系的论述，较有影响的论述算是“萨丕尔—沃尔夫假说”(Sapir - Whorf hypothesis)，该假说分为“强式的” （strong version）和“弱式的” （weak version），即“语言决定论”（linguistic determinism） 和“语言相对论”（linguistic relativity）。语言决定论,即语言决定思维、信念、态度等；语言不同的民族,其思维方式完全不同。语言相对论(linguistic relativity) ，即语言反映思维、信念、态度等。或曰思维相对于语言，思维模式随着语言的不同而不同。语言影响思维，语言不同的民族，其思维方式在一定程度上有差异。
8.7 交际能力
海姆斯（Hymes）交际能力理论的提出是继20世纪60 年代乔姆斯基心灵主义的转换生成语法之后的又一场革命，极大地拓展了
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语言研究的视野,对后来的语言研究和外语教学产生了巨大的影响。
乔姆斯基是一位理论语言学家,他关心的是人是如何生成和理解语言的。他力图构建一套人类语言共有的普遍语法，把语言能力高度抽象化，其研究的最终目的是人脑，他对语言的实际使用不感兴趣。海姆斯是一位人种学家,社会语言学家,他感兴趣的是语言的实际运用和具体操作，把语言能力视为语言的实际使用。由此可见，海姆斯的交际能力和乔姆斯基的语言能力是两个不同的概念。
交际能力概念最早由美国社会语言学家海姆斯在1972年发表的《论交际能力》一文中提出的。他认为一个人的潜在能力（capacity）包括语言知识（knowledge） 和使用语言的能力（ability for use of language） 。他认为交际能力由以下四个参数组成: (1) 语法性，某种说法是否(以及在多大程度上) 形式上可能；(2) 适合性，某种说法是否(以及在多大程度上) 可行； (3) 得体性，某种说法是否(以及在多大程度上) 得体；(4) 现实性，某种说法是否(以及在多大程度上) 实际出现了。
尽管海姆斯对语言使用做了大量的论述，但并没有说清什么是使用规则。因为社会因素纷繁复杂，情景千差万别,难以做到像语法规则那样可以抽象概括，很难罗列出在某一交际情景下对谁讲什么怎么讲。社会的复杂性，多变性，交际的时效性，交际双方的心态等决定了人们无法、也不可能将语言使用规则像语法规则那样进行概括和分类。海姆斯的贡献是提出了交际能力的四个参数，人们可以用它来指导和检验人们的交际行为。但这并不是说四个参数就是语言的使用规则。在一定意义上，语言使用能力是一种根据不同情景，不同的交际对象，不同的交际内容和目的，灵活运用语言的应变能力。
I. Multiple Choice:
1. The term ______ is the label given to the form of a language used
by any group of speakers or used in a particular field. A. variety B. register C. dialect D. Creole 2. ______ is/are used most widely in a community.
A. Sociolects B. regional dialects C. The standard variety D. Registers
3. ______ is a variety of a language spoken by people living in an
area.
A. A social dialect B. A regional dialect C. The standard variety D. A functional variety
4. British English, American English, Australian English, Indian
English, etc. are all ______.
A. social dialects B. geographical dialects C. registers D. the standard variety
5. The term ______ is used for less drastic difference which is
restricted to variation in pronunciation. A. sociolect B. dialect B. geographical dialect D. accent
6. The pioneering investigation done by William Labov in New York
City in 1966 was to test ______ among different groups of speakers.
A. sociolects B. registers C. regional dialects D. accents
7. ______ is a term widely used in sociolinguistics to refer to
varieties according to use.
A. Register B. Dialect C. Tenor D. Variety
8. ______ is concerned with the purpose and subject-matter of
communications.
A. Tenor B. Register C. Mode D. Field
9. ______ is related to how we communicate, through speech or
writing.
A. Field B. Register C. Mode D. Tenor
10. ______ depends on the relations between the participants.
A. Field B. Register C. Mode D. Tenor
11. Sodium Chloride and salt, which denote the same substance, differ
in ______ of communication.
A. Field B. Register C. Mode D. Tenor
12. ______ is used between family members and very close friends.
A. The consultative style B. The casual style C. The intimate style D. The formal style 13. ______ exists in the Quebec Province, Canada.
A. Pidgin B. Multilingualism
C. Creole D. Bilingualism
14. ______ refers to the fact that a speaker changes from one language
to the other in different situations or when talking about different topics.
A. Bilingualism B. Code-mixing C. Code-switching D. Pidgin
15. _____ is an expression that substitutes one which may be seen as
offensive or disturbing to the addressee. A. Taboo B. Euphemism
C. Implicature D. An indirect illocution
16. The fact that Eskimos has seven words for different types of snow
but there is not a single word equivalent to snow supports the idea of ______.
A. linguistic determinism B. linguistic relativism
C. different cognitive capacities of different people D. different linguistic capacities of different people 综合测试题（一）
I. Indicate the following statements true or false. Put T for true and F for false in the brackets：(10 points)
( ) 1. General linguistics is based on the view that language as a
system, which is composed of three aspects: sound, structure and meaning.
( ) 2. The total number of words stored in the brain is called morphology.
( ) 3. The sentence ―The woman can’t bear children‖ is structurally
ambiguous.
( ) 4. Categorization refers to the process by which people use
language to classify the world around and inside them.
( ) 5. Metaphors can create similarities between the target domain
and the source domain.
( ) 6. According to referential content, deixis can be put into person
deixis, place deixis, time deixis and discourse deixis.
( ) 7. Phrase structure rules are rules that specify the constituents of
syntactic categories.
( ) 8. Modality can be categorized into probability and Usuality. ( ) 9. Age is not the learner factor that has been an issue in second
language acquisition research.
( )10. Register, as a variety of language in use, is analyzed on three
dimensions: field, mode and tenor. II. Multiple choice: (10 points)
1. ____________ is the first and foremost striking feature of human language.
A. creativity B. arbitrariness C. displacement D. interchangeability 2. Syntactically, Japanese is ____________ language. A. analytic B. isolating
C. synthetic D. agglutinating 3. The general roles language plays are termed .
A. metalanguages B. metafunctions C. metadiscourses D. metagrammar
4. ____________ is a process that creates a new word by dropping a real or supposed suffix. A. Blending B. Eponyms
C. Backformation D. Clipping
5. The smallest meaningful unit of language is called a ___________. A. suffix B. prefix
C. morpheme D. morph
6. __________ theories are those that attempt to explain acquisition on the basis of assuming an innate biological endowment that makes learning possible.
A. Environmentalist B. functionalist C. nativist D. both a and b
7. Words and phrases like now, yesterday, next week, in three day, etC. are called __________.
A. person deixis B. time deixis C. place deixis D. discourse deixis
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8. Every syllable has a(n) __________, which is usually a vowel.
A. nucleus B. onset D. code D. rhyme 9. ___________ is defined as the study of meaning.
A. linguistics B. semantics C. morphology D. pragmatics
10. A ___________ is a mixed language which has become the mother
tongue of a speech community. A. pidgin B. creole
C. Esperanto D. natural language
III. Match the terms in column A with the phrases in column B and
put a, b…j into brackets: (10 points) A B
( ) 1. Socialinguistics a. the analysis of sentence structure ( ) 2. Applied Linguistics b. the analysis of meaning in context ( ) 3. Morphology C. the analysis of meaning
( ) 4.d Phonetics d. the study of sound systems and patterns
( ) 5.Linguistics e. the application of linguistic theories
to other spheres
( ) 6. Syntax f. the study of speech sounds
( ) 7. Psycholinguistics g. the study of the relationship between
language and society
( ) 8. Pragmatics h. the study of word structure ( ) 9. Phonology i. the scientific study of language
( ) 10 Semantics j. the study of the relationship between language and mind
IV. For each group of sounds listed below, state the phonetic
feature(s) they all share: (10 points)
1. [t∫][dз] 2. [m] [n] [ɡ] 3. [f] [θ] [s ] [∫] [h] 4. [d] [n] [z] [l] [r] 5. [i:] [i] [u:] [u]
V. Consider the following words and fill in the form: (10 points) Words analyzed number of free morphemes morphemes troublesome stepmother psycholinguistics understatement antidisestablishmentarianism
VI. Interpretate the following ambiguous sentences: (10 points) 1. The duck is too hot to eat.
(1) ______________________________________ (2) ______________________________________ 2. Visiting friends can be boring.
(1) ______________________________________ (2) ______________________________________
VII. Explain the following terms: (10 points) 1. derivation 2. learner factors
VIII. Answer the following questions? (30 points)
1. What is the difference between ―a red and a redcoat‖ ? 2. What are the features of modern linguistics?
3. According to Austin, what does a speech act consist of?
综合测试题（二）
I. Indicate the following statements true or false. Put T for true and F for false in the brackets: (10 points)
( ) 1. According to M. A. K. Halliday, the three metafunctions of
language are ideational metafunction, interpersonal metafunction and logical metafunction.
( ) 2. Duality is the first and foremost striking feature of human
language.
( ) 3. Modality can be categorized into modalization and modulation
according to Halliday.
( ) 4. Morphology is the study of the internal structure and the
formation of words.
( ) 5. Associative meanings are meanings that hinge on referential meaning.
( ) 6. Second language acquisition is a complex process which
involves social factors and learner factors.
( ) 7.Varieties of a language are of four types: the standard variety,
regional dialets, sociodialects and registers.
( ) 8. Functional linguistics is based on the view that language as a
system, which is composed of three aspects: sound, structure and meaning.
( ) 9.Euphemism is an expression that substitutes one which may be
seen as offensive or disturbing to the addressee.
( ) 10. Intonation is the variation of pitch to distinguish utterance
meaning.
II. Multiple choice: (10 points)
1. The language used to talk about language is called __________.
A. language B. metalanguage C. natural language D. artificial language 2. [+continuant] specifies ________________.
A. all the fricatives B. all the fricatives and glides C. all the fricatives and liquids D. all the fricatives, liquids and glides
3. _________ is a process that creates new words by putting together
non-morphemic parts of existing words. A. Coinage B. Blending
C. Acronmyms D. Clipping
4. A __________ is a minimal distinctive linguistic unit.
A. morpheme B. word C. phoneme D. allophones
5. The word ―multinationality has ___________ morphemes.
A. 2 B. 3 C. 4 D. 5
6. _________ is a term widely used in sociolinguistics to refer to
―varieties according to use‖, in contrast with regional dialects and sociolects, both of which are ―varieties according to user‖. A. field B. mode C. tenor D. register
7. __________ are a fundamental unit of conversational structure.
A. back-channel signals B. adjacency pairs C. pre-sequences D. insertion sequences
8. The idea that people cooperate with each other in conversing is
generalized by Grice (1975) as ____________. A. the principle of relevance B. cooperative principle C. the politeness principle D. the theory of prototypes 9. Beauty and siren both refer to a good-looking woman, but they
differ in __________. A. affective meaning B. style C. collocation D. register
10. ―John explained the theory‖ is a ___________ process according
to Halliday. A. material B. mental C. verbal D. behavioral
III. Complete the blanks with necessary words beginning with the
letter given: (10 points)
1. Specially, there are four m__________ under cooperative
principle generalized by Grice.
2. M__________ is unanimously acknowledged by researchers and
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language teachers as an important factor in second language acquisition.
3. A speech act consists of three dimensions. The act of producing a
meaningful linguistic expression is called l_____________ act. The act of communicating intention through utterance is termed i_____________ act. The act of bringing about an effect is known as p____________ act.
4. The transference of properties of the source domain to the target
domain is referred to by some cognitive linguists as m____________ .
5. C__________ is a process that shortens a polysyllabic word by
deleting one or more syllables.
6. A morpheme may be represented by different forms, called
a___________,
7. The term language a___________ refers to the natural process of
children’ language development.
8. A d___________ is a variety of a language that is distinctive from
other regional varieties in vocabulary, grammar and pronunciation. IV. Match the words underlined in Column A with the types of
English word formation in column B. And put the letter you choose in the bracket before the sentence: (10 points) ( ) 1. This vet is very famous in the town. a. Conversion
( ) 2. This classroom is large and bright.. b. Derivation
( ) 3. He is watering flowers. C. Blending
( ) 4. Orlon is a kind of cloth material. d. Backformation
( ) 5. Watt is the measurement unit of electricity. e. Acronym ( ) 6. EEC is an important organization in the world. f. Compounding
( ) 7. An editor is a person who edits a newspaper. g. Coinage
( ) 8. The road was enlarged last year. h. Eponym ( ) 9. Some young people have brunch quite often. i. Clipping
V. Pick out the sound that does not belong to the group of the sounds according to the natural class of sounds. And then name the feature(s) that define the one picked out and the group of sounds: (10 points) For example: [z] voiced/voiceless [f] [θ] [z] [s]
1. [ ] ____________ ____ [m] [?] [l] [n]
2. [ ] ____________ ____ [p] [b] [m] [v] [w]
3. [ ] ____________ ____ [s] [z] [∫] [dз] [з]
4. [ ] ____________ ___________ [i:] [i] [?] [u] [e]
5. [ ] __________________________ [i:] [?:] [e] [?]
VI. Draw tree diagrams to show the ambiguity of the sentence, “He found his book on Wall Street”: (10 points)
VII. Explain the following terms: (10 points)
1. language and linguistics 2. semantics and pragmatics
VII. Answer the following questions:(40%)
1. How do you understand creativity, one of the features of human
language?
2. What do Taboo and Euphemism mean? What is the relationship
between them?
3. What are the general roles language plays according to Halliday?
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综合测试题（三）
I. Indicate the statements true or false. Put T for true and F for false in the brackets. (10 points)
( ) 1. A morpheme is the smallest distinctive linguistic unit that can
contrast words in meaning and in form.
( ) 2. The language used to talk about language is called metalanguage.
( ) 3. The word ―went‖ contains two morphemes.
( ) 4. The approach that analyzes word meaning by decomposing it
into its atomic features is called componential analysis (CA).
( ) 5. Euphemism refers to a prohibition on the use of, mention of, or
association with particular objects, action, or persons.
( ) 6. The distinction between a free morpheme and a bound
morpheme is whether it can be used independently in speech or writing.
( ) 7. In English, the two liquids [l] and [r] are phonemes, but in
Korean, they are allophones.
( ) 8. Mood is a syntactic constituent made up of the Subject and the
Predicate.
( ) 9. Compounding is one type of word formation by combining
both free morphemes and bound morphemes.
( )10. The total number of words stored in the brain is called the
lexicon.
II. Multiple choice: (10 points)
1. The followings are all features of language except __________.
A. duality B. productivity C. changeability D. displacement
2. The lexical sense relation between flour and flower is __________.
A. synonymy B. antonym C. polysemy D. homonymy
3. ______ is a process that puts an existing word of one class into another class.
A. Conversion B. Abbreviation
C. Eponyms D. Blending
4. Children all undergo ________ stages of language development.
A. babbling, two-word, holophrastic and the telegraphic speech B. babbling, two-word, telegraphic speech and the holophrastic C. babbling, holophrastic, two-word, and the telegraphic speech D. babbling, holophrastic, telegraphic speech and the two-word 5. The followings are acknowledged as important factors in second
1. labiodentals [ ] 2. interdentals [ ] 3. back vowels [ ]
V. Match the sentence in Column A with the linguistic process in column B. And put the letter you choose in the bracket. (10 points)
( ) 1. The noise annoyed him. a. Material process
( ) 2. The police caught him b. Relational process
( ) 3. There are two books on the table. c. Mental process
( ) 4. John explained the theory to me. d. Verbal process
( ) 5. He watches TV every day. e. Behavioral process
( ) 6. The conference is on Monday f. Existential process
VI. Explain the following terms: (10 points) 1. arbitrariness 2. voicing
VII. Draw tree diagrams to show the ambiguity of the sentence,
“They can fish”. (10 points)
VIII. Answer the following questions? (30 points)
1. What is the difference between a greenhouse and a greenhouse? 2. What is conversion in terms of word formation? Illustrate it with
language acquisition except _________. A. motivation B. nationality
C. age D. learning strategy
6. Speakers consider the matter of face for themselves and others. Based on this observation, Leech (1983) proposes _____________. A. the cooperative principle B. the principle of relevance C. the politeness principle C. speech acts 7. Minimal pairs can be exemplified by ____________.
A. moon/noon B. foot/food C. she/sheet D. sea/sea
8. The features that are found over a segment or a sequence of two or
more segments are called ___________. A. distinctive features B. non-distinctive features C. suprasegmental features D. free variation
9. The ____________ function (sometimes also referred to as
experiential function) is realized by the transitivity system of language.
A. ideational B. interpersonal C. textual D. logical
10. Free morphemes were traditionally called roots, and bound
morphemes _________. A. prefixes B. suffixes C. affixes D. inflectional morphemes
III. Match the words underlined in Column A with the types of
English word formation in column B. And put the letter you choose in the bracket before the sentence: (10 points) ( ) 1. Most children like drinking Coca-cola. a. Conversion
( ) 2. UNESCO is a branch United Nations. b. Derivation ( ) 3. The police machineguned the gang. c. Blending ( ) 4. I like sandwiches very much. d. Backformation
( ) 5. There are a lot of fruits in the fridge. e. Acronym ( ) 6. Infotech is popular nowadays. f. Compounding
( ) 7. An editor is a person who edits a newspaper. g. Coinage ( ) 8. His stepmother is very kind to him. h. Eponym ( ) 9. The street was widened last year. i. Clipping
IV. Write the phonetic symbol that corresponds to the articulatory
description.(10 points) 4. high vowels [ ] 5. palatal affricates [ ]
examples.
3. What are the components of metaphors?
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