Aiming at meaningful learning, teachers find it difficult to select and prepare meaningful presentations. And students who are slow to comprehend do not work successfully with the method because learning depends a lot on analysis and understanding. Another weak point is there are not yet complete and systematic practical activities and procedures for classroom use .And the rationale behind the method is still at its developmental stage. The method as a system is still not very complete and needs further research and development.
Ⅱ.Points for Discussion (思考题及参考答案)
1. Why is the Cognitive Approach interpreted as the “modern version of Grammar-Translation Method”?
The cognitive Approach is interpreted as the ?modern version of Grammar-Translation Method ‖ because it has rediscovered valuable features in Grammar-Translation Method. The Cognitive Approach comes from the Grammar-Translation Method but it is not a mechanical repetition of the latter, and has given up a one-sided and radical approach in the Grammar-Translation Method. It has some main features: language is an intricate rule-governed system; knowledge of language rules facilitates learning; learning is based on underling; etc. It draws on the latest development of linguistics and psychology and studies foreign language teaching from the point of view educational psychology, linguistic psychology and foreign language learning theories, hence make itself more scientific. The American psychologist Carrol interpreted the Cognitive Approach as a ―modified, up-to-date grammar translation theory.‖
2.What implications for FLT do you see in Chomsky’s work?
Chomsky held that a language learner has, somewhere in his brain, a set of grammar rules with which he can use to make sentence. That is, language is characterized by rule-governed creativity. He claimed that every normal human being is born with a LAD (language acquisition device). The LAD includes basic knowledge about the nature and structure of human language. Chomsky‘s idea that students should be allowed to create their own sentence based on an understanding of a rule is widely used in many classrooms. Chomsky created two linguistic terms: language competence (knowledge of grammar rules) and language performance (application of language). It is competence that a learner gradually acquires, and it is this language competence that allows the learner to be creative as a language user. Meaningful performance rather than drill is the only way to master a language.
3. How do you understand the four principles of cognitive formulated by Diller?
Deller‘s first principle that a living language is characterized by rule-governed creativity implies the teaching of a language as a consciously learnt system. The second principle is that the rules of grammar are psychologically real. The rules of a new language are best learnt in conjunction with demonstration and practice. From the two principles above we must insist that the learner as the center of language teaching and language practice is the main form of classroom teaching. The third is that man is especially equipped to learn languages and learning language is a human characteristic. From this principle we can draw a conclusion that language learning occurs at any time in life in a situation of meaningful use. We should take a broad view of education of the whole person (lifelong education). The last principle is that a living language is a language in which we can think and it is bound up with meaning and thinking. We should emphasize language understanding, meaningful learning and meaningful practice during the entire learning process.
4. How useful are the techniques used by a cognitive teacher to your English teaching and learning experience?
The rule learning, meaningful practice and creativity are the focus of English teaching and learning
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. experience. Using these techniques is to help the learner to understand English as a system, and to master the meaningful material, then to achieve successful communication. These techniques used by a cognitive teacher can stimulate learners‘ subjective activity and creativity, and raise their language competence and language performance. By using these techniques, the teacher can achieve the objectives of English teaching and learning experience: to develop in the students the native-like competence; to develop intuitive thinking in learners; to develop strategies of language use, to enable the students to learn from errors.
Chapter Seven The Natural Approach
I. Key Point (学习要点) 1. Definition
The natural Approach emphasizes natural communication rather than formal grammar study and is tolerance of learners‘error. The core of the Natural Approach is language acquisition, which is considered a subconscious proccess, dependent on two factors: the amount of comprehensible input the students get, and the amount of the students ―allow in ―.
2. Background (产生背景)
The Natural Approach was proposed in 1977 by Tracy Terrell, a teacher of Spanish at the University of California. Later, Terrel joined force with Stephen Krashen, an applied linguist at University of Souththen California, Drawing on Krashen‘s influential theory of Second Language Acquisition, they tried to provide a detailed rhetorical rationale for the natural Approach .In 1983,their joint effort came out in a book The Natural Approach: Language Acquisition in the Classroom, which states the principles and practice of the Natural Approach.
This new philosophy of language teaching was an attempt to develop a language teaching proposal that incorporated the ―naturalistic ―principals in the studies of second language acquisition. The Natural Approach emphasizes the central comprehension and believes that:
(1) Comprehension abilities precede productive skills in learning a language;
(2) The teaching of speaking should be delayed until comprehension skills are established; (3) Skills acquisition through listening transfer to other skills; (4) Teaching should emphasize meaning rather than form; (5) Teaching should minimize learners‘ stress. 3.Theoretiacal Basis (理论基础) 1) Theory of language (语言理论
(1)Communication as the primary function of language; And emphasis on meaning (交际是语言的首要功能，强调意义的作用)
Krashen and Terrell see communication as the primary function of language and since their approach focuses on teaching communicative ability, they identify the Natural Approach with the Communicative Approach. What Krashen and Terrell emphasize in their approach is the primacy of meaning.
(2)Importance of vocabulary(强调词汇的重要性)
Krashen and Terrell stress the importance of vocabulary, suggesting that a language is essentially its lexicon. (3) Not necessary to analyze grammatical structure; and rules automatically provided in the input. (不必分析
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语法结构，语法规则会自动出现在语言输入之中)
Krashen and Terrell hold that grammatical structure dose not require explicit analysis or attention by the teacher, by the learner, or in language teaching materials. They assume that if we provide input over a variety of topics while pursuiting communication goal, the necessary grammatical rules are automatically provided in the input.
2)Theory of learning ( 学习理论)
(1)Krashen ‘Monitor Model of language development (克拉申的第二语言自我监测模式)
The Monitor Model is the center of Krashen ‘ second language learning theory. Krashen argues that his account provides a general or ―overall theory‖ of second language acquisition with important implications for language teaching.
(2)Two distinct process: acquisition and learning (两个性质不同的过程：习得和学习)
Krashen‘s Monitor Model of second language development distinguishes two distinct processes in second and foreign language development and use. One is called ―acquisition ‖, which refers to the subconscious process and leading to the development of ―competence ―and is not dependent on the teaching of the grammatical rules. The second process, called ―learning ‖, refers to the conscious study and knowledge of the grammatical rules. In producing utterances, learners initially use their acquired system of rules. Learning and learned rules have only one function: to serve as a monitor or editor utterance initiated by the acquired system.
(3)The five hypotheses of Krashen Monitor Model(克拉申自我监测的五个假设) 1） The acquisition –learning hypothesis
Krashen maintains that second language learner have at their disposal two distinct and independent ways of developing competence in a second language. One is acquisition .The other is learning. Acquisiton comes through meaningful interaction in a natural communication setting. This contrasts with the language learning situation in which students try not to make mistakes and their teacher corrects them once they are found. Learning, according to the theory, cannot lead to acquisition
2) The monitor hypothesis
The monitor hypothesis states that learning has only one function, and that is as a monitor. It uses conscious grammatical knowledge to determine the form of produced utterance. The monitor (knowledge of grammar rules )is thought to play a monitor role in the second language learning process.
3) The natural order hypothesis
The natural order hypothesis states that we acquire the rule of language in a predicable order, some rules tending to come early and other late. The order doses not appear to be determined solely by formal simplicity and there is evidence that it is independent of the order in which rules are taught in language classes.
4) The input hypothesis
This hypothesis assumers that acquire language in only one way----by understanding messages, or by receiving ―comprehensible input‖, which refers to utterance that the learner understands based on the context in which they are used as well as the language in which they are phrased. In language acquisition, we move from i, our current level to i+l, the next level along the natural order, by understanding input containing i+1.
This hypothesis involves four main issues: First, the input hypothesis relates to acquisition, not to meaning. Second, people acquire language best by understanding input i+1. Comprehension is helped by the situation and the context, extra-linguistic information and knowledge of the world. Third, the ability to speak fluently can not
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be taught, it ―emerges‖ independently in time, after the acquirer has built up language competence by understanding input. Forth, enough comprehension input provides i+1 automatically.
(5) The effective filter hypothesis
Krashen argues that attitude factors also play an important role in acquisition a second language. Krashen sees the learners ?s emotional state or attitude as an adjustable filter that freely possessor blocks input necessary to acquisition. Krashen identifies three kinds of affective variables related to second language acquisition: motivation, self –confidence and anxiety. For Krashen, the affective filter is the principle source of individual differences in second language acquisition. 4. Basic Principles(基本原则) 1) Main features（主要特征）
(1)Language is best taught when it is being used to transmit messages.(语言只有被用来传达信息时才最有利于教学)
The Natural Approach considers input as the most important element of any language teaching programme. Language is best taught when it is being used to transmit messages, not when it is explicitly taught for conscious learning.
(2)Implications for classroom practice: （课堂教学的启示） ① Whatever helps comprehension is important.
② Vocabulary is important. With more vocabulary there will be more comprehension and with more comprehension, there will be more acquisition.
③ Students must understand the message.
④ Classroom with interesting input may be a very god place for second language acquisition. (3)Guidelines for classroom practice:（课堂语言教学的准则） ① The goal of the Natural Approach is communication skills. ② Comprehension precedes production. ③ Production emerges.
④ Acquisition activities are essential. ⑤ Lower the affective filter.
(4)Characteristics of classroom teaching:（课堂教学的特征） ① Class time is devoted primarily to providing input for acquisition.
② The teacher speaks only the target language in the classroom. Students may use either the first or second language. If they choose to respond in the second language, their errors should not be corrected in the process of communication.
③ Homework may include grammar work and errors should be corrected.
④ The goals are to enable students to talk about ideas, perform tasks, and solve problems. (5)The role of learners:（学习者的作用）
The language learners are considered as processors of comprehensible input. They can decide when to speak, what to0 speak about, and what linguistic expressions to use in speaking. Their roles change according to their stage of linguistic development.
(6)The role of a teacher:（教师的作用）
The Natural Approach teacher has three central roles. She is first the primary source of comprehensible
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input in the target language. Her second role is to create a classroom atmosphere that is interesting, friendly, and in which there is a low affective filter for learning. Finally, the teacher must choose and use a rich mix of classroom activities, involving a variety of group sizes, content, and contexts.
(7)The role of testing:（测试的作用）
The role of testing is to motivate students to prepare for tests by obtaining more comprehensible input and to motivate teachers to supply more comprehensible input.
2）Objectives（教学目标）
The Natural Approach is primarily designed to develop basic communication skills------both oral and written------and is designed to help beginners become intermediates. The students are expected to be able to function adequately in the target situation. They should be able to make the meaning clear. The goals of a Natural Approach class are divided according to basic personal communication skills and academic learning skills, with focus on the former. Communication goals are specified in terms of situations functions and topics.
3)Techniques（教学技巧）
(7)Acquisition activities:（语言习得活动）
① Affective-humanistic activities attempt to involve students‘ feelings, opinions, desires, reactions, ideas, and experiences. Open dialogues, interviews, reference ranking, personal charts, supplying personal information, description, etc. are often used to involve students in communicating information about themselves.
② Problem-solving activities are those in which the students‘ attention is focused on finding a correct answer to question, a problem or a situation.
③ Games are the third group of activities. The primary focus of any particular game is on words, discussion, action, contest, problem solving, and guess.
④ Content activities are the ones whose purpose is for the students to learn something new other than language. They include slide shows, panels, individual reports and presentations, ―show and tell‖ activities, music, films, film scripts, TV reports, news broadcasts, guest lectures, native speaker visitors, reading and discussion about any sort of the target language and culture.
(2)Typical techniques:（教学技巧）
In the early stages of speech production, the Natural Approach uses random volunteered group responses, which place little demand on the individual student but allow early use of the target language. As for errors, if students‘ response is wrong in meaning, the teacher will correct them immediately. But if the response is appropriate, but ill-formed or pronounced incorrectly, the teacher will first give a positive response, then use reformations and expansion, just as in real-life situations. The particularly good technique is the one that consists of giving commands to students and having them actually act out what the teacher says. The Natural Approach also provides appropriate texts and reasons for reading.
4)Procedures（教学步骤）
(1)Pre-production:（准备表达阶段）
At this stage, the teacher provides comprehensible input, maintains focus on the message and helps lower affective filters. This pre-production stage allows the students an opportunity to begin the acquisition process. (2)Production stag（表达阶段）
The Natural Approach uses three stages as basis for beginners; and involves personalization and the use of family topics and situations. The first stage is aimed primarily at lowing the affective filter by putting the student
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