直译与意译，归化与异化 直译与意译之争
中国汉唐时期的“文”与“质”之争（实际上是意译与直译之争） 主张“文”的翻译家强调翻译的修辞和通顺强调译文的可读性（意译）；主张“质”的翻译家则强调翻译的不增不减，强调翻译的忠实性（直译，甚至是硬译）。 两者都有片面性。
literal translation, generally speaking, means “not to alter the original words and sentences”; strictly speaking, it strives “to keep the sentiments and style of the original”.
It takes sentences as its basic units and takes the whole text into consideration at the same time in the course of translation.
Furthermore, it strives to reproduce both the ideological content and the style of the original works and retains as much as possible the figures of speech.
Free translation, also called liberal translation, is an alternative approach which is used mainly to convey the meaning and spirit of the original without trying to reproduce its sentence patterns or figure of speech.
This approach is most frequently adopted when it is really impossible to translate the original literally. 直译与意译
直译：literal translation；意译：free translation 直译的例子：
crocodile tears 鳄鱼的眼泪； armed to the teeth 武装到牙齿； chain reaction 连锁反应；
gentlemen’s agreement 君子协定 one country, two systems 一国两制；
The three religions and the nine schools of thought 三教九流；paper tiger 纸老虎；
Breathe one’s last 断气；
go to one’s external rest 安息； the long sleep 长眠； see Marx 见马克思； go west 上西天；
go to heaven 上天堂；
blow out the candles 吹灯拔蜡； kick the bucket 蹬腿
You can kick everything but you can not kick the bucket
直译不等于死译(dead translation): 街道妇女应动员起来打扫卫生。
Women in the street should be called on to do some cleaning. “In the street” should be replaced by “in the community”. 她一大早起床，进城，见到了她的公爹：
She got up early, went to the town and saw her public father. Public father should be father in law.
意译的例子：It rains cats and dogs / at sixes and sevens /Adam’s apple 句子比较：Little fish does not eat big fish 直译：小鱼不吃大鱼；意译：胳膊拧不过大腿
试译：天有不测风云，人有旦夕祸福
直译：Storms gather without warning in nature and bad luck befalls men overnight. 意译：The weather and human life are both unpredictable
更多练习：
But I hate him, and I had a feeling that he would surely lead us both to our ancestor.
Don’t get cross the bridge till you get to it.
Do you see any green in my eye? 你觉得我幼稚可欺吗？
这句话带有反问语气，关键在于“green”。此处“green”不是绿色的，而是指“缺少经验的，幼稚的，好欺负的”。
Hitler was armed to the teeth when he launched the Second World War, but in a few
years , he was completely defeated.
希特勒在发动第二次世界大战时是武装到牙齿的，可是不过几年，就被彻底击败了。 双语转换模式
契合式：概念（深层结构）对应，表达形式（表层结构）大体对应； 并行式：概念（深层结构）并行，表达形式（表层结构）大体并行； 冲突式：概念（深层结构）相左，表达形式（表层结构）不同； 替代式：概念（深层结构）替代，表达形式（表层结构）替代； 结论
直译意译相互关联，相互补充 EX.
You’ve got an iron butt, and that’s the secret of being a lawyer.
Ruth was upsetting the other children, so I showed her the door. Their accent couldn't fool a native speaker. 翻译方法
直译(literal translation) 意译(free translation) 音译(transliteration)
北京——Beijing, radar——雷达 形译(formal translation)
T-shirt T恤衫, T-square丁字尺 解释性翻译
Practice
1. It's a Smoke Free Area. 直译：这是个自由吸烟区。 意译：这是个无烟区。
2. Shakespeare put his hometown on the map. 直译：莎士比亚把他的家乡放在了地图上。 意译：莎士比亚使他的家乡声名远扬。
3. He got into trouble when he paid his bills with rubber checks. 直译：他用橡皮支票付账，并给自己带来了麻烦。 意译：他用空头支票结账，并给自己带来了麻烦。
4. Frank ran circles around the other boys on the basketball team. 直译：弗兰克绕着篮球队的其他男孩转圈。 意译：在篮球队里弗兰克的技术最好。
5. On a rainy day the children sometimes ran their mother ragged. 直译：在雨天，孩子们有时侯使他们的母亲跑得衣衫褴缕。
意译：在雨天，孩子们有时侯把他们的母亲闹得筋疲力尽。
6. When he teased her, she taught him a lesson by breaking his leg. 直译：他戏弄她的时候，她打断了他的腿，给他上了一课。 意译：他戏弄她的时候，她打断了他的腿，教训了他一顿。 7. Where does Susan come into the picture? 直译：苏珊是从哪里来到照片里的？
意译：在这件事中，苏珊扮演了一个什么样的角色？
8. When I asked Henry if he would come to my birthday party, he replied that he would be there with bells on.
直译：我问亨利是否来参加我的生日聚会，他说他会摇着铃铛来。
意译：我问亨利是否来参加我的生日聚会，他说他很荣幸参加我的生日聚会。 9. The book about the dark side of the country fluttered the dovecotes. 直译：这本揭露国家阴暗面的书扰乱了鸽舍。 意译：这本揭露国家阴暗面的书引起了轩然大波。
10.It is an international agreement that no government should take hijackers under its wing.
直译：根据国际协定，任何政府都不能把劫机者放在翅膀底下。 意译：根据国际协定，任何政府都不能包庇劫机者。
From the above analysis, we come to the conclusion that there is no obvious distinction between literal translation and free translation, nor is it necessary to distinguish one from the other. The key point for a translator to grasp is to comprehend the original thoroughly, and then put it into idiomatic Chinese. In the process of translation, specific approaches such as literal or free translation may be of some help, but we should avoid the two extremes.
In the application of literal translation, we should endeavor to rid ourselves to stiff patterns and rigid adherence to translation rules, trying to be flexible；while in the practice of free translation, we should be cautious of subjectivity, avoiding groundless affirmation or arbitrary fabrication. Whatever the circumstance are, we may alternate or combine these two approaches when it is necessary.
一、否定句型中的直译误区
英语中有一些不同的否定句型，其中有一些句型不能完全采用直译法进行翻译，否则，就会造成误译，甚至与原意背道而驰，下列几种否定句型值得注意：
Foreignizing and domesticating
1813年，德国古典语言学家、翻译理论家施莱尔马赫在《论翻译的方法》中提出：翻译的途径“只有两种：一种是尽可能让作者安居不动，而引导读者去接近作者；另一种是尽可能让读者安居不动，而引导作者去接近读者。”
1995年，美国翻译理论家劳伦斯·韦努蒂(Lawrence Venuti) 在其The Translator's Invisibility一书中，将第一种方法称作“异化法”（foreignizing method），将第二种方法称作“归化法”（domesticating method）
5．归化与异化（domestication/adaptation or foreignization / alienation）
归化的翻译在理论上是把语言看作交际工具；在实践上，强调通俗易懂，避免多义或歧义。习惯认为，当原文与译文之间因文化差异而出现不能通达的情况时，“要用译语文化替代原语文化”即把在译语中找不到对等的外语词汇改头换面，或套用译语中与之相似的现成的表达法，把它们变成读者熟悉的译语文化形象。
归化派代表人物尤金?奈达（Eugene A. Nida）: Functional Equivalence 功能对等 What is functional equivalence?
“The receptors of the translated text could respond to it with comprehension and appreciation in essentially the same manner and to the same degree as the original receptors of the message”;
“Translation should arouse the same feeling in its receptors as the feeling of the readers of the original”---- Nida
For instance: as white as snow 通常译为白如雪 / 但没有见过雪的人可以将其翻译为“白如白鹭毛”，以达到功能对等的目的。 Spring up like mushrooms---雨后春笋
Everybody's business is nobody's business. 三个和尚无水喝
Among the blind the one -eyed man is king. 山中无老虎，猴子称霸王
然而，翻译负有文化交流的使命，即尽可能把一个民族的语言和文化习惯介绍给另一个民族。鲁迅先生就特别强调译文要“保留原文的丰姿”。 在南京大学姜秋霞教授举办的一次翻译调查中，多数读者认为，读异国文学是为了欣赏异国作品特有的韵味和语言风格，他们在读译文之前就已经对不同文化的差异有了一定的心理准备，有些人读译文的目的之一是想了解外国人与中国人之间的异同究竟在什么地方。因此，从促进世界文化交流这个角度上讲，我们在处理英译汉或汉译英时，都应着力于全面、完整地向译语读者介绍对方(己方)的全部意蕴，包括文化。特别要强调的是，在汉译英中，我们尤其要树立这种文化意识，积极创造条件，弘扬中华文化，帮助英语读者扩大加深对中华文化的了解。异化的翻译无疑在文化交流方面起了巨大的作用。