A Brief Introduction to Translation
0. Brief on Teaching Set-up 1. Definition
1. Translating is the art of recomposing a work in another language without losing its original flavor. — Columbia Encyclopedia
2. 把已说出或写出的话的意思用另一种言语表达出来的活动。 ——《中国大百科全书·语言文字卷》
3. Translating is the replacement of textual material in one language (SL) by equivalent textual in another language (TL). -- J. C. Carford
4. Translating consists in reproducing in the receptor language the closest natural equivalent of the source language message, first in terms of meaning and secondly in terms of style. -- Eugene A. Nida
5. To translate is to change into another language, retaining as much of the sense as one can. -- Samuel Johnson
6. (Translating) is rendering the meaning of a text into another language in the way the author intended the text. -- Peter Newmark
7. Translation is an art that involves the re-creation of a work in another language for readers with a different background. -- Malcolm Cowley
8. A translation is taken to be any target-language utterance which is presented or regarded as such within the target culture, on whatever grounds. -- Isreali translation theorist Gideon Toury
9. Translation is the production of a functional target text maintaining a relationship with a given source text that is specified according to the intended or demanded function of the target text. -- German translation theorist Chirstiane Nord
10. Translation is an externally motivated industrial activity, supported by information technology, which is diversified in response to the particular needs of this form of communication. -- American translation theorist Jean Sager
11. 翻译是一种跨文化的信怠交流与交换活动，其本质是传播，是传播学中一个有特殊性质的领域。 ——吕俊
12. 翻译是把具有某一文化背景的发送者用某种语言（文字）所表述的内容尽可能充分地、有效地传达给使用另一种语言（文字）、具有另一种文化背景的接受者。 ——沈苏儒
13. 翻译是两个语言社会之间的交际过程和交际工具，它的目的是要促进本语言社会的政治、经济和文化进步，它的任务是要把原作中包含的现实世界的逻辑映像或艺术映像，完好无损地从一种语言译注到另一种语言中去。 ——张今
14. It is sometimes said that there is no task more complex than translation -- a claim that can be readily believed when all the variables involved are taken into account. Translators not only need to know their source language well; they must also have a thorough understanding of the field of knowledge covered by the source text, and of any social, cultural, or emotional connotations that need to be specified in the target language if the intended effect is to be conveyed. The same special
awareness needs to be present for the target language, so that points of special phrasing, local (e.g. regional) expectations, and so on, can all be taken into account. – Cambridge Encyclopedia of Language
15. As for the purpose of translation, let's quote Peter Newmark from his About Translation: 1) To contribute to the understanding and peace between nations, groups, and individuals. 2) To transmit knowledge in plain, appropriate and accessible language, in particular in relation to technology transfer. 3) To explain and mediate between cultures on the basis of common humanity, respecting their strengths, implicitly exposing their weakness. 4) To translate the world's great books, the universal works in which the human spirit is enshrined and lives. 5) As a general aid or as a skill required in the acquisition of a foreign language.
1.1 Information a good definition can supply 2. Nature
Some people believe it is a science, others take it as an art; and yet many consider it a craft, or rather, a skill.
Of these varied opinions, which one holds true for our purpose? The answer depends on how we understand or interpret the word “translation”, for the very word “translation” itself is ambiguous, and the Chinese equivalent “fanyi” sounds even fuzzier. Fanyi, in Chinese, may either stand for a subject of the curriculum, a job people engage in, a piece of literary work, or the translating or interpreting work itself. Sometimes, “fanyi” may even refer to the translator or interpreter himself / herself.
If the word “translation” refers to a subject, namely, the study of translation theory and skills, it is no doubt a science, just as any subject is, with its own rules, laws and principles for the translation to abide by; however, if it refers to some specific pieces of translation, then it is more like an art, with each piece manifesting its own charms and style in the creative hands of the translator; whereas, if it refers to a process, in which something is translated, then we may regard it as a craft or skill. For unlike any branch of natural science, the process of translation has its peculiarity, and none of its rules and principles are universally applicable. Besides, it entails a lot of practice – particular craftsmanship and skills are displayed by the touches of different translators.
3. Scope
Translation covers a very broad range. In terms of languages, it can be divided into two categories: from native languages into foreign languages and vice versa; in terms of the mode, it can be divided into oral interpretation, written translation and machine translation; in terms of materials to be translated, there is translation of scientific materials, translation of literary works such as novels, stories, prose, poetry, drama, etc., translation of political essays such as treatises on social problems, reports, speeches, etc., and translation of practical writing (as official documents, contracts and agreements, notices, receipts, etc.); in terms of disposal, it can be either full-text translation, abridged translation or adapted translation.
4. Qualifications of a translator 5. Criteria
1. As early as in the Eastern Han Dynasty Zhi Qian pointed out in 《法句经序》，“佛言，依其义不用饰，取其法不以严。其传经者，当令易晓，勿失厥义，是则
为善。”
2. Dao An (道安，314 - 385) of the Eastern Jin also warned translators on guard against 五失本 (five ways of losing the original essence in translation). The \losses\in improper translation are: 1) unnecessary reversion of word order, 2) added description (which does not exist in the original), 3) cutting of repeated wording (necessary as religious scriptures for prayers), 4) omission of repetition of certain conclusive messages, and 5) cutting of contents repeated as introduction to a new topic.
3. 既须求真，又须喻俗。 ——玄奘 4. 早在光绪二十年（1894年），马建忠（1845-1900）就在其《拟设翻译书院议》中对翻译进行了深入的探讨，提出了“善译”的标准：夫译之为事难矣，译之将奈何？其平日冥心钩考，必先将所译者与所以译者两国之文字深嗜笃好，字栉句比，以考彼此文字孳生之源，同异之故，所有相当之实义，委曲推究，务审其音声之高下，析其字句之繁简，尽其文体之变态，及其义理粗深奥折之所由然。夫如是，则一书到手，经营反复，确知其意旨之所在，而又摹写其神情，仿佛其语气，然后心悟神解，振笔而书，译成之文，适如其所译而止，而曾无毫发出入于其间，夫而后能使阅者所得之益，与观原文无异，是则为善译也已??。
5. The three-character criterion 信, 达, 雅 (faithfulness, expressiveness, elegance / refinement) by Yan Fu (严复，1854 –1921) in 《天演论·译例言》：译事三难:信、达、雅。求其信，已大难矣！顾信矣，不达，虽译，犹不译也，则达尚焉。海通以来，象寄之才，随地多有；而任取一书，责其能与于斯二者，则已寡矣！其故在浅尝一也；偏至二也，辨之者少，三也。今是书所言，本五十年来西人新得之学，又为作者晚出之书，译文取明深义，故词句之间，时有所傎到附益、不斤斤于字比句次，而意义则不倍本文。??至原文词理本深，难于共喻，则当前后引衬，以显其意。凡此经营，皆以为达，为达即所以为信也。易曰:“修辞立诚”。子曰:“辞达而已！”又曰:“言之无文，行之不远。”三者乃文章正轨，亦即为译事楷模。故信、达而外，求其尔雅，此不仅期以行远已耳！实则精理微言，用汉以前字法句法，则为达易；用近世利俗文字，则求达难。
6. 译书自以能存真为第一要义??最好一面极力求不失原意，一面要译文流畅。 ——郑振铎
7. 译者不但要求达意，并目要以传神为目的，译文必须忠实于原文之字神句气与言外之意。 ——林语堂
8. “以效果而论，翻译应当像临画一样，所求的不在形似而在神似”“要获致原作的精神” ——傅雷
9. 文学翻译的最高理想可以说是“化”。把作品从一国文字转变成另一国文字，既能不因语文习惯的差异而露出生硬牵强的痕迹，又能完全保存原作的风味，那就算得入于“化境”。 ——钱钟书
10. 1) The translation should give a complete transcript of the ideas of the original work. 2) The style and manner of writing should be of the same character with that of the original. 3) The translation should have all the ease of the original composition. – Alexander Fraser Tytler
11. We expect approximate truth in translation ... what we want to have is the truest
possible feel of the original. The characters, the situation, the reflection, must come to us as they were in the author's mind and breast, not necessarily by precisely as he had them on his lips. – Oliver Edwards
12. A good translator is: 1) To give a just representation of the sense of the original, 2) To convey into his version, as much as possible, in a consistency with the genius of the language with which he writes, the author?s spirit and manners and 3) To take care that the version has at least the quality of an original performance so as to appear natural and easy. – George Campbell
13. The test of a real translation is that it should not read like translation at all. -- J. B. Philips
14. No translation, however learned, is of any value that does not give at least some of the joy to the readers that was given by its original. -- A. J. Arborry
15. (Tri-ness) Faithfulness, expressiveness, and gracefulness were considered the golden rule int he field of translation. -- Herbert Rotheinstein
16. … the best translation is the one which a) uses the normal language forms of the receptor language, b) communicates, as much as possible, to the receptor language speakers the same meaning that was understood by the speakers of the source language, and c) maintains the dynamics of the original source language text. Maintaining the \is presented in such a way that it will, hopefully evoke the same response as the source text. – Mildred L. Larson
spiritual conformity (神似) and sublimed adaptation (化境)
According to Peter Newmark, “Nothing is purely objective or subjective. There are no cast-iron rules. Everything is more or less. There is an assumption of ?normally? or ?usually? or ?commonly? behind each well-established principle; as I have stated earlier, qualifications such as ?always?, ?never?, ?must? do not exist – there are no absolutes.” (P. Newmark, 21)
5.1 Classification of the Criteria 5.2 Demonstrations of Criteria
Studies serve for delight, for ornament, and for ability. Their chief use for delight is in privateness and retiring; for ornament, is in discourse; and for ability, is in the judgement and disposition of business. ---- Of Studies
读书可以使人从中获得愉快的感觉，可以增添光彩并增长才干。在独居或退隐的情况下，读书最感愉快。在谈话时，读书最能显示其光彩。在判断和处理事务时，最能表现出读书获得的能力。
读书足以怡情，足以博采，足以长才。其怡情也，最见于独处幽居之时；其博采也，最见于高谈阔论之中；其长才也，最见于处世判事之际。——王佐良《谈读书》
十六字令三首 一九三四年到一九三五年
THREE POEMS OF SIXTEEN WORDS 1934 – 1935
其一
山， 快马加鞭未下鞍。
惊回首， 离天三尺三。 其二
山， 倒海翻江卷巨澜。
奔腾急， 万马战犹酣。 其三
山， 刺破青天锷未残。
天欲堕， 赖以拄其间。
Peaks!
Piercing the blue without blunting the blade, The sky would fall But for this colonnade. Peaks!
Turbulent sea with monstrous breakers white, Or galloping steeds In the heat of the fight. Peaks!
Whipping the steed without dismounting, I Look back surprised To be three-foot-three off the sky.
Ex. The heavily laden infantry, though enjoying a superiority of six-to-one, simply could not keep to schedule and lost 60,000 men in one day.
6. Process of Translation
The process of translation consists of two phases: comprehension and expression. Generally speaking, comprehension is of foremost importance, and expression is the natural consequence of thorough comprehension.
As for comprehension, the translator has to work out the deep structure of the SL text. (Cf: Prof. Zhou, P41, P45)
“You begin the job by reading the original for two purposes: first, to understand what it is about; second, to analyze it from a ?translator?s point of view, which is not the same as a linguist?s or a literary critic?s. You have to determine its intention and the way it is written for the purpose of selecting a suitable translation method and identifying particular and recurrent problems.” (P. Newmark, 11)
7. Reflection
7.1 Which of the given definitions do you think is / are good? Why? 7.2 What do you think is the nature of translation? Why? 7.3 Why are criteria / principles needed for translation?
7.4 Translate the sentence: The heavily laden infantry, though enjoying a superiority of six-to-one, simply could not keep to schedule and lost 60,000 men in one day.