BODYTYPESANDFOODCHOICES
925
cognitiveload(seefig.6),lowASEparticipantschosesignificantlylesswhen
926
TABLE1
REGRESSIONRESULTS:STUDY3
Step1 Step2 Step3 GenderRestraine.40** .41** .39** deating
-.14 -.14 -.15+
Other’sbody .12 .13 .13 Cognitive load -.11 -.11 -.11 ASE
.04
.04 .07 Other#Load -.04 -.04 Other#ASE .03 .01 Load#ASE
-.02 -.07 Other#Load#ASER
.18* 2
.25
.25 .28 DR2 .25** .00 .03* F 8.64** 5.38** 5.54** df
5,133
8,130
9,129
NOTE.—Standardizedregressionweightsarepresented. +p!.10. *p!.05.
**p!.01.
theotherconsumerwasheavythanwhensheorhewasthin(bp.74,SEp.24,tp2.16,pp.03),butnodifferencesemergedamongthosehighinASE(bp-.06,SEp .34,tp-.18,NS).ExaminingacrosslevelsofASE,lowASEparticipantstooklessthanthosehighinASEwhentheotherpersonwasheavy(bp.43,SEp.26,tp1.66,p!
.10)butnotwhensheorhewasthin(bp-.06,SEp.18,tp.33,NS).Theseresultsstronglysupportourhypothesis.Interestingly,underhighload(seefig.7),thosehighinASEtookmarginallymorewhentheotherconsumerwasthinthanwhenshewasobese(bp.52,SEp.28,tp1.88,pp.06),butnodifferenceswereobservedamongthoselowinASE(bp-.16,SEp.27,tp-.60,NS).However,examiningacrosslevelsofASE,wefindnodiffer-encesbetween thosehigh andlowin ASE,regardlessofwhethertheotherconsumerwasheavy(bp-.19,SEp.18,tp-1.07,NS)orthin(bp.22,SEp.17,tp1.33,NS).Resultsfromthecontrolconditionshowed that partici-pantsprimarilyselectedthemediumsizeoption(3onthe1–5scale).Importantly,basedonourtheorizing,giventhattherewasnosocialothertocompareto,therewasnoeffectofASE(means+/-oneSD:lowASEp3.05,highASE
p3.02).
Discussion
Ourthree-wayinteractionbetweenASE,cognitiveload,andconfederate‘sweightonparticipants‘sizechoiceshowsthatconsciouseffortisrequiredforparticipantstoadjusttheirconsumptiondownwardfollowinganobesepersonsettingahighanchor.Consistentwithourtheorizing,underlowload,participantslowinASEgenerallyorderedasmallerchoicewhentheotherpersonwasobeseversusthin,butthose
highinASEwerelessaffectedbythesocialpresence.Wepredictednodifferencesunderhighcognitiveload,andindeedthiswasconsistentwithourresultsingeneral.
Whileourresultsindicatedthatcognitiveloadactedasa
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moderator,wedidnotmakeaformalpredictiononexactlyhowcognitiveloadwouldoperateinourmodel.Giventhatitdid not interactwith
themanipulationcheckassessingtheother‘sweight,cognitiveloadwasnotinhibitingconsumers‘abilitytonoticetheother‘sbodytype.Anotherpossibilityisthatloadwasdisruptingattentiontowardwhattheotherchose,resultinginafuzzyanchor.Weexaminedthispos-sibilityandfoundevidencesupportingthismechanism.Weincludedinthesurveyaquestioninwhichparticipantswereaskedtorecallthesizeoficecreamthattheotherordered.Resultsofalogisticregressionwithcorrect/incorrectrecallasthedependentmeasureshowedamaineffectforcognitiveload(Wald
p4.87,pp.03),wherethosehighincognitiveload were more likelyto incorrectly recalltheother‘sorder.Sincetheotheralwayschosethex-largesize,alloftheerrorswereeitherdownward(attributedasmallersizetotheother)orerrorsofomission(couldnotrecall).Webelievethatthisisevidencethatthecognitiveloadwasoperatingbymuzzlingtheanchoritselfratherthanparticipants‘ad-justmenttoit. Theresultsofthecontrolconditionshowthat,inthisstudy,a―normal‖portionchoicewasamediumsize.Wealsoknowthatloaddisruptsattentiontotheanchortheotherpersonsetsratherthantheirbodytype.So,comparedwiththecontrolcondition,participantsunderloadwhoseeaheavypersonhavedirectionallylessconsumption.Further,thoselowinASEunderloadwhoseeathinpersonalsoselectadirectionallysmallerchoicethanthecontrol(thosehighinASEmatchthenormseeninthecontrol
condition).Thispatternmakeslogicalsenseandfollowsfrompretestdatathatindicatedthatpeoplewantedtodissociatefromtheobesebutalsothatthinpeoplecanremindthosesensitivetoovereatingtoeathealthier(smallerportions).Importantly,underlowloadiswherethegreatestadjustmenttakesplace.Withnormallevelsofcognitivecapacityavailable,thereisasharpdistinctionbetweenreactionstothinandobeseothersforthoselowinASE.Consistentwithourfirsttwostudies,thelargestconsumptiontakesplacewhenthethinotherselectsthelargesizeunderlowload.
ThisisalsoconsistentwithresearchdonebyCialdiniandhiscolleaguesonthefocustheoryofnormativeconduct
FIGURE6
SIZECHOICELOWCOGNITIVELOADCONDITION(STUDY3)
BODYTYPESANDFOODCHOICES
FIGURE7
SIZECHOICEHIGHCOGNITIVELOADCONDITION(STUDY3)
(Cialdini,Kallgren,andReno1991;Cialdini,Reno,andKallgren 1990; Kallgren, Reno, and Cialdini2000).Intheirconceptualization,thereareinjunctivenorms
(whatoneshoulddoinaparticularsituation)anddescriptivenorms(whatmostothersdoinaparticularsituation).Inourcase,intheabsenceofasocialother,theinjunctivenormisamedium,orinthecaseofstudies1and2,a―modest‖amount.Whatthesocialotherdoesismakeadescriptivenormsalient,whicheitherhighlightsahighorlowanchor,asocialnormthatistakenasdiagnosticbyparticipants.Focustheoryalsoindicatesthatattentionpaidtothesocialnorm(the―focus‖)moderateswhichnormisutilized,mean-ingthatthemoresalientnormwillguidebehavior.Whatishappeninginthehighloadcondition,then,isthatthisde-scriptivenormismadelesssalient,andfollowingCialdini‘setal.‘sconceptualization,participantsrelyontheirinter-nalizedinjunctivenorm. Without
thecognitiveresourcesavailabletoengageinanadjustment,neitherlownorhighASEparticipantsdifferedsignificantlyasafunctionoftheother‘sbodytype,althoughtherewasasubtlesuggestionthatthosehighinASEmayhaveadjustedtowardthethin―other‖withoutdeliberatethought,orderingalargersizeasaresult.ThismayhaveoccurredbecausethosehighinASEare the leastmotivatedtoengageincorrection.Aswell,researchinassimilationandcontrasthasshownthatpeoplecanassimilatebothtothosepossessingdesirabletraits(StapelandWinkielman1998)andtothosewhoresembletheself(SmeestersandMandel2006).SinceahighASEparticipantmayperceivemorecommonalitywiththethinconfederate,thesepartic-ipantsmayhaveunconsciouslyassimilatedtowardhisorhercho
ice.
GENERALDISCUSSION
Thestudiesreportedabovehighlightanimportantpersonbysituationinteractioninthesocialinfluenceoffoodcon-sumption.Weshowthatitisnotsimplyeatingwithheavypeoplethat makes you eat more (or less); itdependsonwhattheseotherconsumerschoose.Acrossthreestudies,weshowsupportforananchoringandadjustmentprocessinwhich
927
consumersuseaquantityanchorsetupbyotherstodeterminehowmuchtheyshouldselectthemselvesbutalsoadjustfromthisdependingonwhothe otherconsumer is.Study1showsevidenceofbothananchoringprocessbasedonwhatotherconsumers selectandanadjustmentthatoccursbased on theother‘sbodytype.Study2replicates andextendsthesefind-ings,showingthesame adjustment effectwithalowanchor:whenaconfederateselectsasmallportion,participantschooseandconsumelessfoodbutmorewhentheotherisobeseversusthin.Study3demonstratesthatcognitiveresourcesandASEmoderatetheadjustmenteffect.Takentogether,theseresultsrepresentacomprehensivepackageofhowsocialin-fluenceeffectsinfoodconsumptionaremoderatedbythebodytypeofotherconsumers.
Ourresultsreplicateresearchthatshowsthatpeoplearemorelikelytoeatgreaterportionswheninthepresenceofotherswho do likewise; we alsoextendtheseresultstoshowthatthiseffectisevengreaterwhentheotherpersonisthinratherthanheavy.Thus,ourfindingsstronglysuggest,countertootherresearchdoneinthesocialinfluenceliteratureonfoodconsumption,thatinmanycasesthemostdangerouspeopletoeatwitharenotthosewhoareoverweightbutratherthosewhoarethinbutareheavyeaters.Itisimportantto
notethattheseresultsdonotcontradicttherecommendationsofthosewhosuggestthatsmall-portioneatersshouldeatbythemselvesbutlarge-portioneatersshouldseekoutagroup (e.g.,Wansink 2006).Ourresultsindeeddofindthat,ascomparedtonooneelsepresent,largeportionschosenbyothersleadtogreaterconsumptionandsmallerportionchoicesbyothersareassociatedwitheatingless.However,weshowthatthisisqualifiedbytheweightoftheotherperson.Ifaheavy-setcolleagueeatsalot,heorsheisabetterlunchpartnerthanathincolleaguewhoordersthesamedish.Bycontrast,athincolleaguewhoeatslightlyismorelikelytocauseothersaroundthemtoorderless.Thus,fromtheperspectiveofself-regulation,recognizingsitua-tionswhereyouarelikelytobevulnerabletoovercon-sumption is important. Asamatterofmaintainingahealthybody weight, such smallfood intakedecisionshavealargerimpactontheirbodyweightthanpeoplerealize(Wansink2006).
Whilewefindthatanchoringandadjustmentexplainsourfindings,othershaveshownthatconsumerscanmimicthosearoundtheminaconsumptionsettingwithoutdeliberatethought(ChartrandandBargh1999;Tanneretal.2008).Thedesignofstudy2alsoallowedustoexaminetheal-ternativepredictionthatconsumersaresimplymimickingtheotherconsumerwhensheisthin.Tanneretal.(2008)showedthatconsumersdoindeedmimictheconsumptionchoicesofotherconsumers.Forexample,theyfoundthatparticipantswhoobservedaconfederatechoosingonesnackfood outof aset ofchoiceschoseamuchhigherpercentageofthatsnackthemselves,relativetoacontrolgroupthatwasnotmimicked.Afollow-upanalysisonourstudy2resultswasperformedtoprovidesupportthatthetypeofconsumptionreactiontothebodytypesofothersisdrivenlargelybyananchoringandadjustmentmechanism, notby
928
anonconsciousmimicrymechanism.Ourstudyincorporatedmultiplechoicesoffood,soparticipantswerefreetoselectfoodthattheconfederatedoesnottake,asinTanneretal.(2008).Ifmimicrywereoperating,weshouldhaveseenconvergenceonbothvarietyandquantitydimensionsbe-tweentargetandconfederate,whichwedidnotobserve.Participants‘choiceswerenotinfluencedbywhichchoicesweremadebytheconfederate,andtheywerenotdifferentwhenshewasthinorheavy.
Futureresearchmightconsiderwheneachofthepaths(anchoringandadjustmentandnonconsciousmimicry)islikelytoguidebehavior.Inourdata,cognitiveresourceswereneededtoobserveadjustmenteffects.Mimicry,ontheotherhand,canoccurbelowconsciousness.Itcouldbethat,underhighload,mimicrymaybemorelikelytooccur.Inthissense,ourresultsareconceptuallysimilartoworkonnonconsciousstereotyping.Whileparticipantsnoticedthebodytypeoftheotherregardlessofcognitiveload(theresultsofthemanipulationcheckconfirmthis),theadjust-mentwasobservedundernormalcognitiveresources.Whileidentifyingthestigmaandactivatingassociatedprejudicescanoccurautomatically,aconsciouscomponentcandirectactionassociatedwiththestereotype(Devine1989;Fiske
andNeuberg1990).Inourresearch,adownwardadjustmentbasedonthebodytypeoftheobeseotheroccurredonlywhencognitiveresourceswereavailable.Aswell,inourexperiments,theobeseotherservedasastrongdifferentialcue.Itcouldbethatifconsumershaveastrongmotiveforaffiliation,nonconsciousmimicrymaybemorelikelytooccur.Futureresearchmighttestthispossibility. Onelimitationofourstudiesisthatalmostallofourpar-ticipantswereofnormalweight.WhilewefindnoeffectofBMIacrossourstudies,itremainspossiblethatmorevariancewouldbeneededtoseedifferences,andsowecannotruleoutthepossibilitythatwithhigherstatisticalpowerthis var-iablemighthavemoderatedourresults.Anotherlimitationofourresearchparadigmisthatparticipants could notknowtheconfederate,orotherwisesuspicionwouldhavearisenfromseeingherintheprosthesis.Thereissomeevidencetosuggest thatwemayeatdifferently withthoseweknow(seeHermanetal.2003).Futureresearchshouldexaminethisdistinctionfurther,as
wellasotherpotentialmoderatorssuchasage,relationaldistance,orcross-gendereffects,factorsthatmightmoderatethepsychologicalclosenessorperceivedsim-ilarity(Brownetal.1992;Mussweiler2001)participantswouldfeelwiththeconfederate.
Whileourresultsprovideinsightintohowobesitymod-eratessocialinfluenceeffectsstemmingfromobservingoroverhearinganotherconsumerorder,itseemslikelythatsucheffects couldhave an impactin otherdomainsaswell.Mightobeseserversmoderatefoodintakeasafunctionofwhethertheyareserving(un)healthyfoods?Whilethisre-searchfocusedonanunhealthybehaviorassociatedwithone‘sbodytype(overconsumption),futureresearchshouldexamineifhealthybehaviorslinkedtobodytype(e.g.,phys-icalexercise)wouldleadtothesameeffects.Doesobservingobesepeopleexercisemakeonemoreorlesslikelytoengage
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inphysicalactivity?Gettingaclearerpictureofhowsuchcuesoperatewouldbeimportanttounderstandingandmov-
ingtowardthegoalofanoverallhealthierlifestyle.
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