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Converse antonyms are also called relational opposites. This is a special type of antonymy in that the members of a pair do not constitute a positive-negative opposition. They show the reversal of a relationship between two entities, e.g. buy / sell, parent / child, above / below, etc.
III. Hyponymy
Hyponymy involves us in the notion of meaning inclusion. It is a matter of class membership. That is to say, when x is a kind of y, the lower term x is the hyponym, and the upper term y is the superordinate. Two or more hyponyms of the same one superordinate are called co-hyponyms, e.g. under flower, there are peony, jasmine, tulip, violet, rose, etc., flower is the superordinate of peony, jasmine, etc., peony is the hyponym of flower, and peony, jasmine, tulip, violet, rose, etc. are co-hyponyms.
5. 语音学speech sounds phonetics Speech organs
The organs of speech
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The vocal folds
Places of articulation
(1). Bilabial: A speech sound which is made with the two lips.
(2). Labiodental: A speech sound which is made with the lower lip and the upper front teeth. (3). Dental: A speech sound which is made by the tongue tip or blade and the upper front teeth.
(4). Alveolar: A speech sound which is made with the tongue tip or blade and the alveolar ridge.
(5). Postalveolar: A speech sound which is made with the tongue tip and the back of the alveolar ridge.
(6). Retroflex: A speech sound which is made with the tongue tip or blade curled back so that the underside of the tongue tip or blade forms a stricture with the back of the alveolar ridge or the hard palate.
(7). Palatal: A speech sound which is made with the front of the tongue and the hard palate. (8). Velar: A speech sound which is made with the back of the tongue and the soft palate. (9). Uvular: A speech sound which is made with the back of the tongue and the uvula, the short projection of the soft tissue and muscle at the posterior end of the velum.
(10). Pharyngeal: A speech sound which is made with the root of the tongue and the walls of the pharynx.
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(11). Glottal: A speech sound which is made with the two pieces of vocal folds pushed towards each other.
在本部分，各位考生重要了解各发音器官及发音方式，这些是浙江考试中容易考察到的。如2014和2015中学卷都考察了关于发音器官的同一道题目，所以大家研究真题不仅能够窥探出题者的出题思路，出处等，幸运的话还能够碰到原题。所以大家万不可不略真题的价值。真题如下：
9. The opening between the vocal cords is sometimes referred to as _______. A. glottis
B. vocal cavity
C. pharynx
D. uvula
根据我们上面第二幅图，很明显本题选A 声门。 6. general linguistics What is language?
Language is a means of verbal communication. It is a system of arbitrary vocal symbols used for human communication. Design features of language
The features that define our human languages can be called design features which can
distinguish human language from any animal system of communication.
Arbitrariness
Arbitrariness refers to the fact that the forms of linguistic signs bear no natural relationship to their meanings.
Duality
Duality refers to the property of having two levels of structures, such that units of the primary level are composed of elements of the secondary level and each of the two levels has its own principles of organization.
Creativity
Creativity means that language is resourceful because of its duality and its recursiveness. Recursiveness refers to the rule which can be applied repeatedly without any definite limit. The recursive nature of language provides a theoretical basis for the possibility of creating endless sentences.
Displacement
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Displacement means that human languages enable their users to symbolize objects, events and concepts which are not present (in time and space) at the moment of conversation.
Important distinctions in linguistics Descriptive vs. prescriptive
To say that linguistics is a descriptive science is to say that the linguist tries to discover and record the rules to which the members of a language-community actually conform and does not seek to impose upon them other rules, or norms, of correctness.
Prescriptive linguistics aims to lay down rules for the correct use of language and settle the disputes over usage once and for all.
synchronic vs. diachronic
A synchronic study takes a fixed instant (usually at present) as its point of observation. Saussure’s diachronic description is the study of a language through the course of its history.
Langue & parole
Saussure distinguished the linguistic competence of the speaker and the actual phenomena or data of linguistics as langue and parole. Langue is relative stable and systematic, parole is subject to personal and situational constraints; langue is not spoken by an individual, parole is always a naturally occurring event.
Competence & performance
According to Chomsky, a language user’s underlying knowledge about the system of rules is called the linguistic competence, and the actual use of language in concrete situations is called performance.
本部分对语言的定义和四组术语的区别考察较多，例如14年中学和15年小学就分别考察了描述性和规定性的区别以及语言的定义，真题如下：
【14年中学卷】9. As modern linguistics aims to describe and analyze the language people
actually use, and not to lay down rules for “correct” linguistic behavior, it is said to be ______.
A. prescriptive
B. psycholinguistic D. descriptive
C. sociolinguistic
【15年小学卷】4. Language is a system of vocal symbol used for human
communication.
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A. unnatural B. artificial C. superficial D. arbitrary
7. pragmatics, language in use
What is pragmatics? What’s the difference between pragmatics and semantics? Pragmatics is the study of the use of language in communication, particularly the relationships between sentences and the contexts and situations in which they are used. Pragmatics includes the study of
(1) How the interpretation and use of utterances depends on knowledge of the real world; (2) How speakers use and understand speech acts;
(3) How the structure of sentences is influenced by the relationship between the speaker and the hearer.
Pragmatics is sometimes contrasted with semantics, which deals with meaning without reference to the users and communicative functions of sentences.
Speech act theory:
1. Locutionary act: A distinction is made by Austin in the theory of speech acts between three different types of acts involved in or caused by the utterance of a sentence. A locutionary act is the saying of something which is meaningful and can be understood.
2. Illocutionary act: An illocutionary act is using a sentence to perform a function.
3. Perlocutionary act: A perlocutionary act is the results or effects that are produced by means of saying something.
The cooperative principle (CP)
Cooperative principle refers to the “co-operation” between speakers in using the maxims during the conversation. There are four conversational maxims:
(1) The maxim of quantity:
a.
Make your contribution as informative as required.
b. Don’t make your contribution more informative than is required.
(2) The maxim of quality: Try to make your contribution one that is true.
a.
Don’t say what you believe to be false.
b. Don’t say that for which you lack adequate evidence.
(3) The maxim of relation: Say things that are relevant.
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(4) The maxim of manner: Be perspicuous.
a.
Avoid obscurity of expression.
b. Avoid ambiguity. c.
Be brief.
d. Be orderly.
语用学部分较为重要的理论即言语行为理论speech act theory和合作原则cooperative principle,大家在复习的时候要着重于这两个理论的理解记忆。如15年中学卷就考察到了相关知识点：
【15年中学卷】37. Speech act theory is an important theory in the ________ study of
language
言语行为理论是语用学中的重要理论，因此本题填pragmatic.
总而言之，语言学的考察具有较强的专业性，需要考生花一番功夫去理解记忆重要的理论知识。
以上就是华图教师对浙江省教师统考中语言学考点的归纳总结，希望各位考生能够做到有的放矢，高效复习，顺利通过笔试。
最后，华图教师诚祝各位考生乘华图翅膀，圆教师梦想！
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