Chapter Five
Sense relations（涵义关系）
", Words are in different sense relations with each other. Some words have similar senses than others. ", desk, table, furniture
", The sense of a word may be seen as the network of its sense relations with others.
", There are three kinds of sense relations: sameness relation: SYNONYMY; （相同关系：同义关系） oppositeness relation: ANTONYMY; （对立关系：反义关系）
inclusiveness relation: HYPONYMY. （内包关系：上下义关系）
Synonymy
", the technical term for the sameness relation
", Total synonyms are rare.
", The so-called Synonyms are context dependent.
", Synonyms differ in one way or another. ", Differ in style:
buy, purchase; pass away, die ", Differ in connotations:
thrifty, economical, stingy; politician, statesman ", Differ in dialects:
autumn, fall; flat, apartment; elevator, lift; sweets, candy; biscuit, cracker; railway, railroad; ring, call
Antonymy
", the name for opposite relation ", There are three main sub-types: ●gradable antonymy; 等级反义关系
●complementary antonymy; 互补反义关系 ●converse antonymy; 反向反义关系
gradable antonymy
", the commonest type of antonymy ", good, bad; long, short;
big, small; hot, cold; beautiful, ugly; old, young; wide, narrow; like, dislike ", They have three characteristics.
1. GRADABLE （等级性）
", The members of a pair differ in terms of degree. ", The denial of one is not necessarily the assertion of the other.
", They can be modified by “very”.
", They may have comparative and superlative degrees.
", Sometimes the intermediate degrees may be lexicalized.
", They may be expressed by separate words rather than by adding modifiers.
2. Antonyms of this kind are graded against different norms. （以不同的规范分等级） ", There is no absolute criterion by which we may say something is good or bad, long or short, big or small.
", The criterion varies with the object described. a big car, a small plane; a microcomputer, microorganism
3. One member of a pair, usually the term for the higher degree, serves as the cover
term （表示较高程度的单词用作覆盖整个量 级的覆盖性术语）. How old are you?
", The cover term（覆盖性词语） is “unmarked（无标记的）”, i.e. usual（一般的） ; the covered（被覆盖的词语） “marked（有标记的）”, or unusual（特殊的）.
Complementary antonymy
", The members of a pair in this type are complementary to each other. alive, dead; male, female; present, absent; innocent, guilty; odd, even; pass, fail; hit, miss; boy, girl
", They divide up the whole of a semantic field completely: The assertion of one means the denial of the other, and the denial of one means the assertion of the other.
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他们把一个语义领域完全分开了：不但对一 方的肯定意味着对另一方的否定，而且对一 方的否定也意味着对另一方的肯定。
", There is no intermediate ground between the two.
", The adjectives in this type cannot be modified by “very”. very alive, very dead
", The adjectives in this type do not have comparative or superlative degrees. He is more dead than alive.
", The difference between the gradable and the complementary can be compared to the
traditional logical distinction between the contrary （反对命题） and the contradictory（矛盾命题）. ", In logic, a proposition（命题） is the contrary of another if both cannot be true, though they may both be false, e.g. The coffee is hot and The coffee is cold.
", 如果两个命题不能同真，但是可以同假，则一个是 另一个的反对命题。
", And a proposition is the contradictory of another if it is impossible for both to be true, or false; e.g. This is a male cat and This is a female cat. 如果两个命题既不能同真，也不 能同假，则一个是另一个的矛盾命题。
human beings and animals.
", There is no cover term for the two members of a pair of complementary antonymy.一对 成员没有一个覆盖性词语。
", If you do not the sex of a baby, you ask “Is it a boy or a girl?” not “How male is it?”
Converse antonymy
", Members of a pair do not constitute a positivenegative opposition.
", They show the reversal of a relationship between two entities.实体间的一种反向关系 ", Buy, sell; lend, borrow; give, receive; parent, child; husband, wife; host, guest;
employer, employee; teacher, student; above, below; before, after.
", A buys something from B means the same as B sells something to A. It is the same relationship seen from two different angles. ", This type of antonymy is typically seen in reciprocal social roles, kinship relations, temporal and spatial relations. So they are also known as RELATIONAL OPPOSITES 关系对立. There are always two entities involved. One presupposes the other. 涉及 两个实体，一个预设了另一个。
", With converse antonyms, there are always two sides. If there is a buyer, there must also be a seller. A parent must have a child. Without a child, one cannot be a parent. ", The comparative degrees like bigger, smaller; older, younger also belong to converse antonyms, since they involve a
", The norm in complementary antonymy is absolute.规范是绝对的。
", It does not vary with the thing a word is applied to.
", The same norm is used for all the things it is applicable to.
", For example, the criterion for separating the male from the female is the same with
relation between two entities.
Hyponymy
", a matter of meaning inclusiveness意义内包 ", a matter of class membership 类和成员间 的关系
", desk, furniture; rose, flower
", 属概念（genus）和种概念（species）之间 的关系
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", The upper term in this sense relation, i.e. the class name, is called SUPERORDINATE（上坐标词）, and the lower terms, the members, HYPONYMS（下义词）. ", A superordinate usually has several hyponyms. Members of the same class are CO-HYPONYMS （同下义词）.
", Sometimes a superordinate may be a superordinate to itself. Animal is a hyponym of itself, and may be called Auto-hyponym自我下义词 ( p114)
", A superordinate may be missing sometimes. In English there is no superordinate for the color terms red, green, yellow, etc. ", Hyponyms may also be missing. There is only one word uncle in English, but in Chinese there are different kinds of uncles.
Componential analysis成分分析
", Semantic features, semantic components: the meaning of a word is not an unanalysable whole. It is a complex of different semantic features. There are semantic units smaller than the meaning of a word. 词义并非是不可分析的整体，它 是一个不同语义特征的复合体，有比词义更 小的语义单位：语义特征或叫语义成分。
", boy: [HUMAN], [YOUNG], [MALE] ", girl: [HUMAN], [YOUNG], [FEMALE] ", man: [HUMAN], [ADULT], [MALE] ", woman: [HUMAN], [ADULT], [FEMALE]
", To be economical, some semantic components can be combined together. ", [YOUNG] and [ADULT] may be combined together as [ADULT], with [YOUNG] represented as [~ADULT]
", [MALE] and [FEMALE] may be combined as [MALE], with [FEMALE] represented as [~MALE].
",Words which involve a relation between two entities may be shown as follows: ", father＝PARENT (x, y) & MALE (x) (x is a parent of y, and x is male)
", mother＝PARENT (x, y) & ～MALE (x) ", son ＝CHILD (x, y) & MALE (x) ", daughter ＝CHILD (x, y) & ～ MALE (x)
", take ＝CAUSE (x, (HAVE (x, y))) (x causes x to have y)
", give ＝CAUSE (x, (～ HAVE (x, y))) ", die ＝BECOME (x, (～ALIVE (x))) ", kill ＝CAUSE (x, (BECOME (y, (～ ALIVE ( y)))))
",murder ＝INTEND (x, (CAUSE (x, (BECOME ( y, (～ALIVE (y)))))))
Advantages of Componential analysis: ", By showing the semantic components of a word in this way, we may better account for sense relations of words and sense relations between sentences.
Sense relations between words:
", 1) Two words, or two expressions, which have the same semantic components will be synonymous with each other.
bachelor: [HUMAN], [ADULT], [MALE], [UNMARRIED]
unmarried man: [HUMAN], [ADULT], [MALE], [UNMARRIED]
", 2) Words which have a contrasting component are antonymous. man: [Human], [Adult], [Male] woman: [Human], [Adult], [~Male] ", 3) Words which have all the semantic components of another are hyponyms of the latter.
boy: [HUMAN], [~ADULT], [MALE] girl: [HUMAN], [~ADULT], [~MALE] child: [HUMAN], [~ADULT]
Sense relations between sentences: John killed Bill but Bill didn’t die. John killed Billed but he was not the cause of Bill’s death.
John murdered Bill without intending to. ", These sentences are self-contradictory because they have contradictory semantic components in them.
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", A more important sense relation between sentences is entailment（衍推关系）. ", 1. a) John killed Bill. b) Bill died. ", 2. a) I saw a boy. b) I saw a child.
", 3. a) John is a bachelor. b) John is unmarried
", The member sentences of each pair are in such a relationship that the truth of the second sentence necessarily follows from the truth of the first sentence, while the falsity of the first follows from the falsity of the second. ( a真则b真，b假则a也假） ", It is because (a) sentences contain words which have all the semantic components of a word used in (b) sentences.
Problems of Componential analysis:
", First, many words are polysemous which have more than one meaning, consequently have different sets of semantic components. “man”: The man cried for the first time. Man is different from animals.
Secondly, some semantic components are seen as binary taxonomies（二分分类学）.Eg. The opposition between MALE and FEMALE is different from that between ADULT and YOUNG.
", Thirdly, the examples we have seen are only concerned with the neatly organized parts of the vocabulary. There may be words whose semantic components are difficult to ascertain. eg. To words HUMAN, ADULT, MALE used to explain the semantic feature of others, how could explain their semantic feature?
Sentence meaning
", The meaning of a sentence is obviously related to the meanings of the words used in it.
", But sentence meaning is not the sum total of the meanings of the words used in it.
", Sentences using the same words may mean quite differently if they are arranged in different orders. The man chased the dog. The dog chased the man.
", There may still be difference in what Leech calls thematic meaning. I’ve already seen that film. That film I’ve already seen.
", That shows that to understand a sentence, we need also have knowledge about its syntactic structure.
", In other words, this is an area where word meaning and sentence structure come together.
An integrated theory 整体理论
", The principle of COMPOSITIONALITY 组合原则： The meaning of a sentence depends on the meanings of the constituent words and
the way they are combined.句子意义由成分词的意义及其组合 方式所决定
It was advanced by J. Katz and his associates in the framework of
transformational grammar（转换语法）.
", In 1963, Katz and Fodor wrote an article “The Structure of a Semantic Theory”, arguing forcibly that semantics should be an integral part of grammar, if as Chomsky claims, grammar is to be a description of the ideal speaker-hearer’s knowledge of his language.
", They set out to describe in some detail the internal structure of the semantic component.
", Their proposal in: An Integrated Theory of Linguistic Description
", The basic idea:
A semantic theory consists of two parts: a dictionary and a set of projection rules( 语 义理论由两部分组成：一本词典和一套投射规 则).
", The dictionary provides the grammatical classification and the semantic information of
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words. 词典提供语法的分类和语义信息。
", The grammatical classification is more detailed than the traditional parts of speech. Hit, not just a verb, but a transitive verb, written as Vtr. Ball, not just a noun, but a concrete noun, written as Nc. Terms like Vtr and Nc are called grammatical markers（语 法标记）, or syntactic markers（句法标记）.
", The semantic information is further divided into two sub-types:
",the information which has to do with the more systematic part, or is of a more general nature, is shown by semantic markers（语义 标记）, such as (Male), (Female), (Human), (Animal).
",The information which is more idiosyncratic （个体的）, word-specific, is shown by distinguishers（辨义成分）.
", Bachelor has the following distinguishers: a. [who has never married]
b. [young knight served under the standard of another knight]
c. [who has the first and lowest academic degree]
d. [ young fur seal when without a mate during the breeding time]
", This effectively provides a solution to the integration of syntax and semantics. Sentences made up of the same words but in different orders will surely be given different semantic interpretations.
", Katz also introduces some selection restrictions（选择限制） as constraints on the combination process.
", 例如在The man hits the colorful ball 里，
“hit”、”colorful”和“ball”都是多义词。它们怎样能够 组合在一起表示一定的意思呢？这是因为每一个词 都有若干语义特征，它们之间有一种互相制约的关 系，可称为选择制约（selection restrictions）。 ", Katz & Fodor 认为成分分析法可以揭示句子 中词与词的组合关系以及人们是怎样认识这 些关系的。
", “ball”有三种含义：舞会、球、炮弹。“colorful”有两 种：色彩艳丽的（用于描写物体或社会活动）和丰 富多采的（用于描写艺术物体或社会活动）。“ball” 和“colorful”在一起可以有6中组合，运用选择限制的 原则可以排除两种：丰富多采的球和丰富多采的炮 弹。“hit”又有两种含义：物体与物体相碰和人或高 级动物打击物体。由于主语是“man”， 这就排除了 物体与物体相碰，在余下的4中组合里，不可能是人 打舞会，又排除了两种。因此只有两种组合是可能 的：某个成年的男子碰撞（或打击）某个色彩艳丽 的球（或炮弹）。
", The problems in the Integrated Theory: 1. The distinction between semantic marker and distinguisher is not very clear, e.g. young; 2. There are cases in which the collocation of words cannot be accounted for by grammatical markers, semantic markers or selection restriction, e.g. nurse in My cousin is a male nurse (normal) and My cousin is a female nurse (odd).
3. The most serious defect concerns the use of some semantic markers like male, human which are elements of an artificial meta-language.
Logical semantics 逻辑语义学
", Philosophers have been more concerned
", The semantic description of this sentence, Katz and his associates suggest, is built on this basis. That is, they will first combine the meanings of colorful and ball, then those of the and colorful ball, and so on.
with sentence meaning.
", We’ll introduce some of the basic ideas or concepts in propositional logic（命题逻辑） and predicate logic（谓词逻辑） in this part.
", Propositional logic(命题逻辑)
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