( of antonyms ) e.g. up and down hit or miss rain and shine 3. Figures of speech (1) Simile e.g. as dead as a doornail sleep like a log (2) Metaphor Animals are used to refer to people, e.g. grey mare snake in the grass Inanimate things to refer to people e.g. a new broom flat tire the salt of the earth Things to refer to something else, e.g. bed of dust a wet blanket black bottle Actions, state to refer to abstract ideas or other actions, state, etc. e.g. sit on the fence cut the ground from under sb. fall from grace (3) Metonymy : idioms in which the name of one thing is used for that of another associated with it. (4) Synecdoche: substituting part for the whole e.g. fall into good hands earn one‘s bread (5) Personification e.g. The pot calls the cattle back (6) Euphemism 9.3.3 Variations of Idioms 1) Replacement 2) Addition or deletion 3) Position-shifting 4) Shortening 5) Dismembering 195.问题：classification of idioms可分为哪几类？答案：Idioms may be classified into five groups : 1) Idioms Nominal in Natural 2) Idioms Adjectival in Nature 3) Idioms Verbal in Nature 4) Idioms Adverbial in Nature 5) Sentence Idioms
196.问题：Sentence idioms 如何分类: ( 选择或填空还未考过)答案： They embrace declarative,
interrogative, imperative and exclamative sentences.In terms of complexity Sentence Idioms can be further divided into simple, compound and complex sentences. 注意：习语中的特例有可能是填空内容: (Exception1) This class contains numerous prepositional phrases, which in nature are either adjectival or adverbial and in many cases have both functions at the same time. (Exception2 )Sentence Idioms are mainly proverbs and sayings, including colloquialisms and catchphrases, including colloquialisms and catchphrases. (Exception3)In terms of complexity Sentence Idioms can be further divided into simple, compound and complex sentences. (Exception4) forms and functions of idioms are not necessarily identical.
197. 问题：What are the rhetorical features of idioms?答案：1)Phonetic manipulation (1) Alliteration (2) Rhyme 2) Lexical manipulation (1) Reiteration (2) Repetition (3) Juxtaposition 198.问题：Figures of speech ( 大的修饰格6个, 小的修饰格4个)答案： 1) Simile 2) Metaphor 3) Metonymy 4) Synecdoche5) Personification 6) Euphemism (1) humourous (2) ironic and sardonic in tones (3) derogatory (4) hyperbole
199.重点简答题: Metonymy 和Synecdoche , 这两种修饰有何区别? ( 未考过)答案：Both metonymy and synecdoche involve substitution of names, yet they differ in that the former is a case of using the name of one thing for another closely associated with it and the latter is that of substituting part for the whole and vice versa. 习语的分析：(挑出习语加以分析，它是哪一个类型, 然后加以解释) e.g. He goes to the service , rain or shine.答：In this sentence, rain or shine, is an idiom. rain or shine is composed in Juxtaposition. It is Idiom adverbial in nature改写后：He goes to the service, no matter what the weather looks like , no matter what and no matter what kind of difficulties.
200.第十章 English Dictionaries 词典这一部分在填空或选择时出现的可能是最大的1) 词典的种类2)每一种词典的特殊性也是考试的要点：比如：CCELD它的最大特殊性是它的extra column3) 每一种词典的vocabulary stock 也是考试的要点：
大学英语词汇学个人总结重点
Chapter 1 The definition of lexicology 1.1 Lexicology
The term lexicology contains two Greek morphemes: lexicon and logie. The former means word and the latter means learning or the study of. The literal meaning of the term is the science of words
Lexicology is the branch of linguistics concerned with the study of the vocabulary of a given language. It deals with words, their origin, development, history, structure, meaning and application. In short, it is the study of the signification and application of words. 1.1.1 Aims of the course of English Lexicology
All the words in a language together constitute what is known as its vocabulary. Vocabulary is one of three elements of language: speech sounds, grammar and vocabulary. In learning a foreign language,
it is very important to enlarge one‘s vocabulary. In order to learn and use English words correctly, those who major in the English language should acquire a basic knowledge of English lexicology.
The aim of the course in English lexicology is to give a systematic description of the English vocabulary. Concretely speaking, English lexicology offers students an insight into the origin and development of the English vocabulary. It deals with meanings of Modern English words and their changes in the course of historical development. It discusses the problems of word-structure and word-formation in English, including the formation of new words which have appeared since the Second World war. It also studies the use of English words, phrases and idioms.
1.1.2 The significance of a course in English lexicology for language learning is also evident.
The course will help the learners to enlarge their vocabulary and improve their ability to analyze and use English words. English lexicology as a theory of Modern English may be useful in vocabulary study because it derives from practice and should guide practice since it is known that language learning requires practice. Students will use the basic knowledge of English lexicology to understand the material already familiar to them from English classes and apply it in their further study of English. 1.2 The connection of Lexicology with other Branches of Linguistics. 1) With phonetics语音学:
Phonetics is the study and systematic classification of the sounds made in the spoken utterance, that is, the study of speech sounds. It is closely related to lexicology. Without sound there is no word because every word is a unity of sound and meaning. 2) With grammar:
Vocabulary and grammar are organically related to one another. In learning a language, attention to grammar is as important as attention to vocabulary. It is noted that the vocabulary is the building material of a language. The vocabulary of a language assumes tremendous importance when it comes under the control of grammar, which is concerned with the modification in form of words and the combination of words into sentences. 3) With stylistics文体学:
Leech defines stylistics as the study of the use of language in literature and considers stylistics a meeting ground of linguistics and literary study. To put it here concerning lexicology, Stylistics is the study of optional variations in the sounds, forms, or vocabulary of a language, different situations of use, or different literary types. It should be mentioned that lexicology studies stylistic variants on the basis of meanings of words and their changes: synonyms, antonyms, etc. Stylistics is concerned with
language variety differing according to use rather than user. The same user may use different varieties for different purposes, different situations, in conversation with different people, to produce different effects. The same subject matter can be expressed in different styles, e.g. (1) His beloved friend has breathed his last (咽气了) (2) His dear friend has passed away （ 与世长辞） (3) His close friend has died （ 死了）
(4) His old guy has kicked the bucket. （翘辫子）
(5) His old friend has abandon the world/ join the choir invisible/ go to Nirvana/pay the debt of nature（谢世/ 归寂/ 去极乐世界/ 了结尘缘）
4) With historical linguistics:
Historical linguistics studies words from the view point of diachrony, whereas lexicology studies words from the view point of both synchrony and diachrony, but especially of synchrony.
1.3 Two approaches to the study of English lexicology.
There are two main approaches to the study of English lexicology, that is, synchronic and diachronic. The term synchronic means describing a language as it exists at one point of time. The term diachronic means concerned with historical development of a language. A synchronic approach is an approach to
the study of a language at one period of time, whereas a diachronic approach is an approach to the study of the change in a language that took place over a period of time.
The following examples may illustrate the difference between the two approaches and their interrelation.
1) Synchronically, words like January, February, etc. are simply English words, the names of the first and second months of the year. Diachronically, they are borrowed words. They were derived from Latin. For instance, January is ― the door of the year‖. The word was derived from Latin Janua meaning door. August is the name of the first Roman Emperor, Augustus Caesar. It is said that Augustus borrowed a day from February and gave August 31 days.
2) Synchronically, words like woman, Monday, etc. are simple words, a woman, not a man, and Monday, the second day of the week. Diachronically, they existed as compounds in Old English. The word woman came from ― wif + mann‖. The word Monday came from ? mona + dag‖, that is, the day of the moon.
3) Synchronically, we consider words like eventful, talkative, etc. as derivatives. Diachronically, they were hybrids, that is words which are made of two parts, each from a different language. Event is a Latin root, ful is an old English suffix. Talk is an old English root, ative is a Latin suffix.
4) According to synchrony, we can see that the word fond means like or affectionate, but according to diachrony we know that it means foolish. We find a similar example in the word comrade. The word comrade originally meant roommate, but now it means fellow member of a political party.
Nowadays most of the language teachers pay more attention to the synchronic approach to the study of the English vocabulary. They describe what the English vocabulary is like, rather than how it came to be that way.
Chapter 2 The sources of the English vocabulary 2.1 The English people and the English Language
The English people are of a mixed blood. The early inhabitants of the island called England now were Britons. From the Britons the island got its name of Britain. In 55 B.C, Britain was invaded by the Roman conqueror Julius Caesar. The Roman occupation lasted for about four hundred years. In 410 A.D, all the Roman troops returned to the Continent, thus ending the Roman occupation of Britain. At the beginning of the fifth century Britain was invaded by three tribes form the Northern Europe: the Angles, Saxons and Jutes. These three tribes landed on the Britain coast, drove the Britons west and north and settled down on the island. These three tribes merged into one people. And the three dialects they spoke naturally grew into a single language the English language.
However, the English language today reflects many centuries of development. The political and social events that have in the course of English history so profoundly affected the English people in their national life have generally had a recognizable effect on their language. The Roman Christianization of Britain in 597 brought England into contact with Latin civilization and made significant additions to the English vocabulary. The Scandinavian invasions resulted in a considerable mixture of the two peoples and their languages. The Norman conquest made English for two centuries the language mainly of the lower classes while the nobles and those associated with them use French on almost all occasions. And when English once more regained supremacy as the language of all elements of the population, it was an English greatly changed in both form and vocabulary from what it had been in 1066. In a similar way the Hundred Years‘ War, the rise of an important middle class, the Renaissance, the development of England as a maritime power, the expansion of the British Empire, and the growth of commerce and industry, of science and literature, have each in their way, contributed to the development of he
language. References in scholarly and popular works to Indian English‖, Caribbean English, West African English, and other regional varieties point to the fact that the political and cultural history of the English language is not simply international history of quite divergent societies which have caused the language to change and become enriched as it responds to their own special needs.
2.2 Evolutional periods of the English Language
This history of the English Language is divided into three periods. The period from 450 to 1150 is known as old English. It is sometimes described as the period of full inflections, since during most of this period the case endings of the noun, the adjectives, and the verbs are preserved more or less unimpaired. From 1150 to 1500, the language is known as Middle English. During the period, the
inflections, which had begun to break down toward the end of the Old English period, become greatly reduced, and it is consequently known as the period of leveled inflections. The language since 1500 is called Modern English. A large part of the original inflectional system has disappeared entirely and we therefore speak of it as the period of lost inflections. The progressive decay of inflections is only one of the developments that mark the evolution of English in its various stages.
2.3 Some characteristics of Old English
The pronunciation of old English words differs somewhat from that of Modern English words.
Especially the long vowels have changed a great deal. Take the old English word stan for instance. The word stan is the same word as the Modern English word stone, but the vowel is different. The a sound has shifted to the sound of o in Modern English. Other vowels have also undergone changed. e.g. Fot ( O. E) ----- foot ( Mod. E) Cene ( O. E) ---- keen ( Mod. E) Fyr ( O.E ) ----- fire ( Mod . E ) Hu ( O. E ) ----- how ( Mod. E )
Old English represented the sound of th by p and as in the word wip ( O. E ) ---- with ( Mod . E ), and the word a ( O. E ) --- then ( Mod. E ), the sound of sh by sc in sceap ( O. E ) --- sheep ( Mod. E ) or sceotan ( O. E ) ---- shoot ( Mod. E ), and the sound of k by c as in cynn ( O. E ) --- kin ( Mod. E ) or nacod ( O. E ) --- naked ( Mod. E).
The vocabulary of Old English consisted mainly of Anglo Saxon words. But when the Norman Conquest in 1066 brought French to England, much of the English vocabulary was replaced by words borrowed from French and Latin. During this period, much of the Old English was no longer in use, but the basic elements of the vocabulary have remained. They express fundamental concepts of human life, such as : mann ( man), wif ( wife), cild ( child ), hus ( house ), benc ( bench), mete ( meat, food), leaf ( leaf ), fugol ( fowl ), strang ( strong ), etan ( eat ), drincan ( drink ), libban ( live ), etc.
Old English is a synthetic合成的 language which shows the relation of words in a sentence largely by means of inflections while Modern English is an analytic分解的 language which indicates the relation of words in a sentence by means of order, prepositions or auxiliary verbs, rather than by inflections. For instance:
It's very important to notice right away that it is NOT the position of the word in the sentence that makes it take the form sé or tone; it's the role that the word is playing in the sentence. To make this clear, take a look at the following sentences: Sé sunu lufode tone f?der. Lufode sé sunu tone f?der. Tone f?der lufode sé sunu. Tone f?der sé sunu lufode. Sé sunu tone f?der lufode.
These sentences all mean exactly the same thing. In other words, in this kind of simple sentence, tone tells us that the noun it's associated with is the object, sé tells us that the noun it's associated with is the subject. Not all demonstrative pronouns change their form to indicate subject and object in this way. The \nouns, and these ones don't make any changes to either noun or demonstrative between subject and
object.
Se f?der lufode t?t wíf,\?t wíf lufode tone f?der,\\.\?t wíf\
Modern English depends upon word order to show the relations of words in a sentence. Different word order may result in different meaning. The sentence ― The police arrested the thief‖ is completely
opposite to the sentence ― the thief arrested the police‖ in meaning. So, in contrast with Modern English, Old English is a synthetic language.
2.4 Some characteristics of Middle English
The middle English period extends from 1150 to 1500. This period was marked by important changes in the English language. The Norman Conquest was the cause of this change. The change of this period had a great effect on both grammar and vocabulary. In grammar English has changed from a highly inflected language to an analytic language. In this period many old English were lost, and thousands upon thousands of borrowed from French and Latin appeared in the English vocabulary.
French influence on the English vocabulary is much more direct and observable. More than half of the English vocabulary is derived from Latin. Some of them have come directly, but a great many came through French. Borrowed words from French in this period are beef, pork, bacon, air, beauty, music, brown, painting, colour,etc which is further discussed in the latter sections.
Middle English represented the sound of c by ch as in the word child (M.E)---cild ( O.E), and the sound of cw by qu as in the word queen ( M.E) --- cwen ( O.E).
All in all, at the beginning of the period English is a language that must be learned like a foreign tongue, at the end it is Modern English.
2.5 Some characteristics of Modern English
The Modern English period extends from 1500 to the present day. We may divide this period into two parts: the early Modern English and the late Modern English period. The Early Modern English period extends from 1500 to 1700. The chief influence of this time was the great humanistic movement of the Renaissance. In this period the study of the Latin and Greek classics was stressed, so the influence of Latin and Greek on English was great. Some words as conspicuous, disability, disregard, emancipate, expectation exist, external came directly from Latin. Others, like chaos, crisis, emphasis, system are of Greek origin.
The Late Modern English period started after 1700. The eighteenth century in England was a time of stabilizing and purifying the English language. In the 18th century French greatly influenced English. The number of French words in the period from 1650 to 1800 increased rapidly. The following words are useful examples: ballet, cartoon, champagne, cohesion, dentist, patrol, publicity, routine, etc.
The territorial expansion of the English Empire in this period resulted in the expansion of the English vocabulary. Thus, there are American Indian words, caribou, hickory, moose, papoose, etc. There are also English Mexican words, such as, maize, potato, tobacco, hammock, etc. From Peru come puma, quinine, etc. From Brazil come cayenne, jaguar, etc. From India , calico, coolie, mandarin, etc come into the English. From Africa come banana, gumbo, zebra, etc.
The nineteenth and twentieth centuries are a period of rapid expansion for the English vocabulary in the history of English language.
In this period, many changes have taken place. Especially, the great development of science and technology is reflected in the English vocabulary, apart from which there are changes in industry, in political and social lives and other all which have contributed a great deal to the English vocabulary. The following words may be clearly found in this period. The words cinema and moving picture date from 1899. The words radio meaning a receiving station and television date from 1923 and 1904