现小尺度混合以及小尺度街道的基础，便于行人及自行车通行。
（5）本地非机动出行率：所有本地出行中步行或骑自行车交通量的比例（按照出行公里数）。目标值为大于50%。突出了为达到目标的实验性的目标水平，以减少能量要求和运输中产生的二氧化碳排放。
（6）能源需求：目标水平设定为每人每年10 000kWh （人均总能耗包括交通运输，但不包括工业）。该目标水平仅是瑞典目前现状的一半。 （7）可再生能源：可再生能源占基本能源消耗的比例为95%。为达到目标水平，推荐综合使用风能、潮汐能及工业区的余热。
（8）回收利用：大于80%的垃圾将进行回收利用（回收材料和以生物降解对营养的回收）和能量回收。
（9）回收用于农业：大于80%的食物垃圾将经过生物处理，产生肥料和回收能量。 （10）用水量：人均每日用水量小于120L。由于省内普遍缺水，同时为了减少能源消耗，降低人均用水量至关重要。
（11）雨水收集：每年储存的雨水总量的比例为75%。由于缺水，雨水是一种很有价值的水资源。
（12）污水分类收集：90%－95%的建筑物拥有黑水和灰水分开处理的技术措施。与传统废水处理方法相比，分开处理这些污水将改进资源提取（能量、养分），减少能源消耗。
（13）公共绿地：人均公共绿地面积为20m 2，其中包括绿地和集市市场。
（14）公共空间包括绿色空间的可达性：住宅区所有居民可在500m的范围内抵达公共空间和绿地。
5.结论 指标体系建立在还原论原则的基础之上，以“降低复杂性以便使问题量化和容易沟通”（经合组织，1993年）。还原论本身也是兼有利弊。集中到一个选定的验证指标进行分析，便于解读、确定标准和沟通。还原论方法伴随的缺点是对认知进行简化的风险。因此指标的运用必须得到深入的分析和一个健全的、参与性规划过程的支持，以减少还原论方法的弊端。
与在较大地理范围的管理指标相比，在较小地域范围的城镇区域或项目上使用的指标体系的发展还不够。（Dobbelsteen & Wilde 2004a，Wong，2006）。在项目层次和城镇地区层次上使用指标体系进行可持续发展的评估还存在难点。主要是缺乏有效的测量工具，缺乏分
类的统计数据，因而难以建立空间因素和行为模式之间的因果关系。 指标的选择也不是一个简单和精确的事情。选择基于关于建成环境与行为的关系的综合理论和研究，旨在达到更好的未来。在今天还缺乏完善经验的情况下，发展规划指标的工作就是在正确的理论支持与实践可行性之间取得平衡。
曹妃甸生态城项目中的指标体系是在规划和设计的
过程中通过互动的方式形成的。系统地分析环境问题的共生城市概念和方法是工作的出发点，并通过瑞典、中国专家和当地领导的多向交流选定和进一步发展了各个具体指标。在这一过程中有很多机会参考瑞典和中国的标准，也增进了彼此的了解和认识。
希望该过程有助于曹妃甸国际生态城指标体系获得认可和理解，能在实际中指导和支持生态城规划设计、建设和运作的过程，以实现总体构想：即成为响誉世界的“以人为本、社会进步、经济繁荣、气候中性、环境可持续发展”的新城。□
注释：
［1］瑞典国际开发署. 可持续城市方法， 2007
参考文献：
1. Dobbelsteen van den A. & Wilde de S. (2004a). 空间优化利用的概念性可持续环境评估. 环境管理杂志. 73卷: 81-89
2. Hillier, B. 空间是机器. 剑桥：剑桥大学出版社，1996
3. Jacobs, J. 美国大城市的生与死. 纽约：兰登德，1961
4. OECD. 环境指标和环境性能综述-OECD核心指标组.环境专题：83. 巴黎， 1993
5. SIDA. 可持续性城市途径， 2007
6. Schylberg, K. 车站附近区域内土地高效利用规划指标. 瑞典吕勒奥理工大学， 2008
7. Sternudd, C. 小城镇形象——对城市形态的美学评价. 瑞典隆德大学， 2007
8. Wong, C. 城市和地区规划指标：政策和方法的互动.伦敦：RTPI藏书系列，2006
The Indicator System of Caofeidian International Eco-City shall guide and support the process of planning and design, production and operating the Eco-City to fulfil the overall vision; to be a world renowned, modern, people-focused, prosperous, climate-neutral and environmentally sustainable society. Indicators should also support a holistic perspective on sustainable urban development including environmental/ ecological, socio-economic, cultural and spatial goals. This means that every indicator should be useful as a tool for actively integrating these goals in planning proposals on different levels but also for follow-up and control of how the goals have been fulfilled. Indicators are also important tools to communicate to politicians and the general public the special challenges in realizing the Caofeidian International Eco-City and solutions to these challenges.
The indicator system includes two types of indicators: planning indicators and monitoring indicators. In the current planning phase the focus is on the planning indicators. Planning indicators were introduced in a Swedish planning context in the late 1990s as tools to implement environmental objectives in comprehensive spatial planning. The last ten years the planning indicator tool has been the object for research and development projects with governmental funding but is not yet to be regarded as common praxis in Swedish planning practice. Planning indicators are complements to indicators for monitoring purposes that are usually based on
information from statistics. Monitoring indicators give information about the present state and the past, but not about future situations. The strategic importance of the planning indicator is due to its use as a tool to facilitate discussions about future consequences in an early stage of the planning process. Planning indicators describe factors that can be gathered from a spatial plan, either directly or indirectly by making conclusions based on circumstances that are readable in the plan.
Selected planning indicators reflect the current Swedish development in planning theory and practice and have been adapted to the special challenges of Caofeidian Eco-City.
1.An Indicator System Based on the SymbioCity Approach
The indicator system for caofeidian Eco-city is based on the SymbioCity integrated and multidisciplinary approach, meaning that the SymbioCity approach can be represented in a conceptual model that helps understanding the fundamental principles of a modern sustainable city. Conceptual consolidation of the indicator system was in this case done by adapting the SymbioCity conceptual approach to the specific local conditions and planning objectives in the Caofeidian or the other way around framing the specific local conditions and planning objectives within the SymbioCity conceptual model. Conceptual consolidation meaning explaining and highlighting the founding concept to be represented by the analysis and pinning down the strategic and political context. The framework also provides the base for an analytical structure to arrange indicators and a logic ground for identification and selection of indicators.
2.SymbioCity Conceptual Model
The conceptual model of the SymbioCity approach can be illustrated in a diagram. The inner ring in the top diagram includes environmental factors such as climate change, natural and artificial hazards etc. The next ring represents a number of subsystems that must be taken into account if improvements of environmental situations are to be achieved (Figs. 1,2).
These subsystems encompass development and management of urban functions such as industry, housing and service as well as traffic and transportation planning and management, energy, waste and water planning and management, landscape planning and building planning and design. These subsystems can be analysed and developed for an entire city or city-district. The exterior ring represents the institutional factors that have to be taken into consideration to achieve long term change. A wide definition of institutional factors includes urban governance, urban planning, land management, legislation and policies, financing, private sector participation, training and technology in a general sense ( SIDA, 2007).
Planning and monitoring indicators relate to the conceptual model as follows (Fig. 3):
Planning indicators are mainly designed at the subsystem level of urban environment and technical system solutions, which is indicated in the third ring of the diagram, by suggesting certain physical qualities or estimated outcomes. Suggested technical system solutions as well as urban structures can be subject to review based on these indicators.
Monitoring indicators are related to environmental factors and socio-economic key issues in the second ring in the diagram. Monitoring indictors measure and evaluate the City's progress over time in relation to certain sustainability objectives and targets on an international, national, regional or city level.
Following from the SymbioCity concept indicators are identified and aggregated at the subsystem level. When planning indicators are used to generate system solutions and design proposals and to perform sustainability reviews of proposals these tasks are facilitated if indicators are organised around the subsystems.
The SymbioCity approach promotes holistic and sustainable urban development, seeking potential synergies between urban functions and urban technology systems, using closed-loop systems to improve efficiency, increase profitability and save natural resources. True to this holistic approach planning indicators are theoretically validated by using planning theories and strategies with a holistic or multifaceted perspective on sustainable city issues such as: compact mixed city planning, business clustering, integrated land use and transport planning (TOD), socio-spatial concepts and location strategies, integrated resource management (the Eco-Cycle model), closed loop economy, decoupling of economic growth from increased energy demand as well as ecological planning of landscape and water.
Many important urban qualities can not be reduced to quantitative indicators, many indicators related to spatial goals are therefore qualitative. These indicators are based on research within the field of architecture, environmental psychology and urban morphology. Urban quality can for example be evaluated from the perspective of:
· simplicity and complexity, openness and closure, recognition and legibility, maintenance and order, historical attachment, nature and greenery, creative architecture (Sternudd, 2007).
· legible structures and freedom of movement (Lynch, 1960). · integration of local road network for pedestrians (Hillier, 1996).
· four constituent factors behind urban diversity: density, mix of primary and secondary uses, small blocks, aged buildings (Jacobs, 1961).
3. Selecting Indicators
Indicators are selected based on criteria such as theoretical and empirical validity; relevance to sustainability objectives on a project level as well as on international, national, regional or city level (fig 4); avoiding overlapping indicators; measurability. Each indicator is evaluated as for their relevance at three spatial levels: The city/region 30 sqkm (150 sqkm); The city district 12 sqkm; The building/block.
Indicators combined with target levels give a standard to guide planners, developers and contractors through the whole process of planning and designing, production and operating the Caofeidian Eco-City. Target specify necessary standards to achieve prioritised objectives and the overall vision. Targets are set from a combined standpoint of what is necessary in relation to
sustainability objectives as well as what is reasonable in relation to technical solutions, local culture and other socio-economic considerations. Project targets should be bold but not utopian. Final target levels were proposed in collaboration between Sweco and Chinese counterparts. Benchmarking the Swedish and Chinese \practice\and legislation gave important information to the target discussion.
In developing the Caofeidian indicator system we used a combined top-down and bottom-up approach in an iterative process which was also an integrated part of the whole planning and design process. Indicators were selected by Swedish experts identifying a number of important indicators and reasonable target levels within their professional field. Indicators were assembled and evaluated in relation to the holistic perspective of the SymbioCity approach. Indicators worked out from an empirical and theoretical perspective were later tested on a focus group of professional Chinese planners in a workshop. On the whole proposed planning indicators where seen as easy to understand and relevant. With a few exceptions target levels were considered high but reasonable.
4.A Flexible Indicator System
The indicator system includes a total of 141 indicators. Using an Excel model, indicators can be listed and sorted by their relevance to different needs. Indicators can also be added or subtracted.
Indicators can for example be sorted by their relevance in relation to (Fig. 5):
· the overall environmental, cultural and socio-economic goals,objectives and targets stated by the Chinese government on national, regional and district level.
· the overall objectives of the Eco-City..
· objectives formulated at the level of the subsystem.
· synergies from integrated planning of different subsystems. · the planning, construction or operating phases.
· different spatial levels: the regional, city, city district or block/building level.
Key indicators, i.e. particularily important indicators, are used to communicate to politicians and the general public the special challenges in realizing the Caofeidian International Eco-City and solutions to these challenges.
Specific goals of Caofeidian International Eco-City are concluded as: －Environmental Goals
Caofeidian International Eco-city will be:
· A city where natural environment is protected, improved and integrated into the city development.
· A city with a minimized energy demand and a high proportion of renewable energy and recycling of resources.
· A city with a healthy outdoor and indoor environment. · A city that supports healthy and environmentally sound lifestyles and a high quality of life. －Socio-economic and Cultural Goals for Caofeidian International Eco-City