[p] voiceless bilabial stop [b] voiced bilabial stop
[s] voiceless alveolar fricative [z] voiced alveolar
fricative
[m] bilabial nasal [n] alveolar nasal
[l] alveolar lateral [j] palatal approximant
[h] glottal fricative [r] alveolar approximant
2.5 Vowels
2.5.1 The criteria of vowel description
1. The part of the tongue that is raised – front,
center, or back.
2. The extent to which the tongue rises in the direction of
the palate. Normally, three or four degrees are recognized:
high, mid (often divided into mid-high and mid-low) and low.
3. The kind of opening made at the lips – various degrees of
lip rounding or spreading.
4. The position of the soft palate – raised for oral vowels,
and lowered for vowels which have been nasalized.
2.5.2 The theory of cardinal vowels
[Icywarmtea doesn’t quite understand this theory.]
Cardinal vowels are a set of vowel qualities arbitrarily
defined, fixed and unchanging, intending to provide a frame
of reference for the description of the actual vowels of