contextual meaning of the original in such a way that both content and language are readily acceptable and comprehensible to the readership". Informative and non-literary texts require communicative translation.
交际性翻译：译作所产生的效果应力求接近原作，首先终于译语和译文读者，即使原语屈从译语和译语文化，不给读者留下任何疑点和难懂之处，属欠额翻译。
5）Skopostheory 德国目的论
1. Translation Studies returns the attention to the Receptor side. Skopostheory begins by seeing translation as a purposeful "action", which lead to "a result, a new situation, and possibly to a 'new' object". The aim of the translational action and the way in which it is realized is not random, but must be "negotiated with the client who commissions the action". The ends justify the means.
2. As Vermeer insists: "if therefore follows that source and target texts may diverge from each other quite considerably not only in the formulation and distribution of the content but also as regards the goals which are set for each".
6）Holmes
He divides Translation Studies into two major branches, "Pure" and "Applied", and then sun-divides the " Pure" into two further sub-branches: "Theoretical" and "Descriptive" Translation Studies.
Translation Methods:
1. Word -for word translation
This is often demonstrated as interlinear translation, with the TL immediately below the SL words. The SL word-order is preserved and the words translated singly by their most common meanings, out of context. Cultural words are translated literally. The main use of word-for-word translation is either to understand the mechanics of the source language of to construe a difficult text as a pre-translation process.
2. Literal translation
The SL grammatical constructions are converted to their nearest TL equivalents but the lexical words are again translated singly, out of context. As a pre-translation process, this indicates the problems to be solved.
3. Faithful translation
A faithful translation attempts to reproduce the precise contextual meaning of the original within the constraints of the TL grammatical structures. It "transfers" cultural words and preserves the degree of grammatical and lexical "abnormality"(deviation from SL and norms) in the translation. It attempts to be completely faithful to the intentions and the text-realization of the SL write.
4. Semantic translation
Semantic translation differs from "faithful translation" only in as far as it must take more account of the aesthetic value (that is, the beautiful and natural sound) of the SL text,