Language is a system of arbitrary vocal symbols used for human communication.
The design feature of language: arbitrariness, duality, creativity, displacement.注意arbitrariness, duality这两个。
Arbitrariness means the forms of linguistic signs bears no natural relationship to their meaning. For instance, we cannot explain why a book is called a /buk/ and a pen a /pen/. 还有三个特点，看一下。
Main branches of linguistics: Phonetics(语音学)， Phonology(音系学)， Morphology(形态学)， Syntax（句法学），Semantics（语义学），Pragmatics（语用学）
Morphology is concerned with the internal organization of words.
Syntax is about principles of forming and understanding correct English sentences.
Macrolinguistics(宏观语言学)---Psycholinguistics（心理语言学）注意定义(investigates the interrelation of language and mind, in processing and producing utterances and in language acquisition for
example)，Sociolinguistics（社会语言学），Anthropological linguistics(人类语言学)，Computational linguistics(计算机语言学).
Important distinctions in linguistics: (理解)
Descriptive vs. Prescriptive (描写式/规定式): the distinction lies in prescribing how things ought to be and describing how things are. Synchronic vs. Diachronic: (共时/历时): synchronic description takes a fixed instant as its point of observation; diachronic linguistics is study of a language through the course of its history.
Langue vs. Parole（language/ speaking语言/言语）: the linguistic competence of the speaker and the actual phenomena or data of linguistic.
Competence vs. Performance (语言能力/语言运用): a language user’s underlying knowledge about the system of rules is called his linguistic competence, and performance refers to the actual use of language in concrete situation.
Phonetics（语音学）studies how speech sounds are produced, transmitted and perceived.
The three branches of Phonetics：Articulatory Phonetics(发音语音
学)发展最成熟， Acoustic Phonetics（声学语音学），Auditory Phonetics（听觉语音学）
Phonology（音系学）studies the rules governing the structure, distribution, and sequencing of speech sounds and the shape of the syllables.
IPA---International Phonetic Alphabet
Consonants(辅音)：the Manner of Articulation(发音方式) 、the Place of Articulation（发音部位）（这部分理解，各考一个）看课本35页到37页辅音和元音的发音规则表 发音方式：（八种）
Stop/Plosive (塞音/爆破音)： Complete closure of the
articulators(发音器官) is involved so that the airstream cannot escape through the mouth. /p, b, t, d, k, g/
Nasal (鼻音nasal stop) ：The air is stopped in the oral cavity(口腔) but the soft palate （软腭）is down so that it can go out through the nasal cavity（鼻腔） /m, n, n/.
Fricative（摩擦音）：A fricative is produced when there is close approximation of two articulators so that the airstream is partially obstructed(阻碍) and turbulent(不稳定的) airflow is produced. /f, v,
Approximant (近音)：This is an articulation in which one articulator
is close to another, but without the vocal tract（声道）being narrowed to such an extent that a turbulent airstream is produced. /w, r, j/
Lateral (边音)：The obstruction of the airstream is at a point along the center of the oral tract, with incomplete closure between one or both sides of the tongue and the roof of the mouth. /l/ Trill (颤音)A trill is produced when an articulator is set vibrating by the airstream. /r/
Tap/Flap (触音/闪音): When the tongue makes a single tap against the alveolar ridge（齿龈） to produce only one vibration, the sound is called a tap. The flap is pronounced with the tip of the tongue curled up（卷着） and back in a retroflex(卷舌) gesture and then striking the roof of the mouth in the post-alveolar（后齿龈） region as it returns to its position behind the lower front teeth.
Affricate(塞擦音/破擦音): Affricates involve more than one of these manners of articulation in that they consist of a stop followed immediately afterwards by a fricative(摩擦音) at the same place of articulation. 发音部位：（十一个）
Bilabial（双唇音）：Made with the two lips. /p, b, m/ /w/(we) Labiodental (唇齿音)：Made with the lower lip and the upper front
teeth. /f, v/ Dental (齿音): Made by the tongue tip or blade（舌叶）and the upper front teeth.
Alveolar(齿龈音): Made with the tongue tip or blade and the alveolar ridge.
Post-alveolar(后齿龈音): Made with the tongue tip and the back of the alveolar ridge.
Retroflex（卷舌音）：Made with the tongue tip or blade curled back（卷曲） so that the underside of the tongue tip or blade forms a stricture with the back of the alveolar ridge or the hard palate(硬腭). Palatal（硬腭音）：Made with the front of the tongue and the hard palate.
Velar（软腭音）：Made with the back of the tongue and the soft palate.
Uvular（小舌音）：Made with the back of the tongue and the uvula, the short projection of soft tissue（软组织） and muscle at the posterior end of the velum(软腭).
Pharyngeal(咽音)：Made with the root of the tongue and the wall of the pharynx(咽).
Glottal(声门音/喉音)：Made with the two pieces of vocal folds(声带) pushed towards each other.