Sample 9
A major change that has occurred in the Western family is an increased incidence in divorce. Whereas in the past, divorce was a relatively rare occurrence, in recent times it has become quite commonplace. This change is borne out clearly in census figures. For example thirty years ago in Australia, only one marriage in ten ended in divorce; nowadays the figure is more than one in three (Australian Bureau of Statistics, 1996: p.45). A consequence of this change has been a substantial increase in the number of single parent families and the attendant problems that this brings (Kilmartin, 1997).
An important issue for sociologists, and indeed for all of society, is why these changes in marital patterns have occurred. In this essay I will seek to critically examine a number of sociological explanations for the 'divorce phenomenon' and also consider the social policy implications that each explanation carries with it. It will be argued that the best explanations are to be found within a broad socio-economic framework.
One type of explanation for rising divorce has focused on changes in laws relating to marriage. For example, Bilton, Bonnett and Jones (1987) argue that increased rates of divorce do not
necessarily indicate that families are now more unstable. It is possible, they claim, that there has always been a degree of marital instability. They suggest that changes in the law have been
significant, because they have provided unhappily married couples with 'access to a legal solution to pre-existent marital problems' (p.301). Bilton et al. therefore believe that changes in divorce rates can be best explained in terms of changes in the legal system. The problem with this type of explanation however, is that it does not consider why these laws have changed in the first place. It could be argued that reforms to family law, as well as the increased rate of divorce that has accompanied them, are the product of more fundamental changes in society.
Another type of explanation is one that focuses precisely on these broad societal changes. For example, Nicky Hart (cited in Haralambos, 1995) argues that increases in divorce and marital breakdown are the result of economic changes that have affected the family. One example of these changes is the raised material aspirations of families, which Hart suggests has put pressure on both spouses to become wage earners. Women as a result have been forced to become both homemakers and economic providers. According to Hart, the contradiction of these two roles has lead to conflict and this is the main cause of marital breakdown. It would appear that Hart's explanation cannot account for all cases of divorce - for example, marital breakdown is liable to occur in families where only the husband is working. Nevertheless, her approach, which is to relate changes in family relations to broader social forces, would seem to be more probing than one that looks only at legislative change.
The two explanations described above have very different implications for social policy,
especially in relation to how the problem of increasing marital instability might be dealt with. Bilton et al. (1995) offer a legal explanation and hence would see the solutions also being
determined in this domain. If rises in divorce are thought to be the consequence of liberal divorce laws, the obvious way to stem this rise is to make them less obtainable. This approach, one
imagines, would lead to a reduction in divorce statistics; however, it cannot really be held up as a genuine solution to the problems of marital stress and breakdown in society. Indeed it would seem to be a solution directed more at symptoms than addressing fundamental causes. Furthermore, the
experience of social workers, working in the area of family welfare suggests that restricting a couple's access to divorce would in some cases serve only to exacerbate existing marital problems (Johnson, 1981). In those cases where violence is involved, the consequences could be tragic. Apart from all this, returning to more restrictive divorce laws seems to be a solution little favoured by Australians. (Harrison, 1990).
Hart (cited in Haralambos, 1995), writing from a Marxist-feminist position, traces marital conflict to changes in the capitalist economic system and their resultant effect on the roles of men and women. It is difficult to know however, how such an analysis might be translated into practical social policies. This is because the Hart program would appear to require in the first place a radical restructuring of the economic system. Whilst this may be desirable for some, it is not achievable in the present political climate. Hart is right however, to suggest that much marital conflict can be linked in some way to the economic circumstances of families. This is borne out in many statistical surveys which show consistently that rates of divorce are higher among socially disadvantaged families (McDonald, 1993). This situation suggests then that social policies need to be geared to providing support and security for these types of families. It is little cause for
optimism however, that in recent years governments of all persuasions have shown an increasing reluctance to fund social welfare programs of this kind.
It is difficult to offer a comprehensive explanation for the growing trend of marital breakdown; and it is even more difficult to find solutions that might ameliorate the problems created by it. Clearly though, as I have argued in this essay, the most useful answers are to be found not within a narrow legal framework, but within a broader socio-economic one.
Finally, it is worth pointing out that, whilst we may appear to be living in a time of increased family instability, research suggests that historically, instability may have been the norm rather than the exception. As Bell and Zajdow (1997) point out, in the past, single parent and step families were more common than is assumed - although the disruptive influence then was not divorce, but the premature death of one or both parents. This situation suggests that in studying the modern family, one needs to employ a historical perspective, including the possibility of looking to the past in searching for ways of dealing with problems in the present.
Sample 10
Discuss why assignment essays are common assessment tasks in undergraduate tertiary coursework, and evaluate the effectiveness of assignments as an avenue for learning. (Word limit 500 words - 10% leeway) Please note that the APA referencing style is used in this sample essay.
Assignment essays are developed from set questions that give students a period of time to
research a topic and produce their answer with references to their sources of information. While there are some disadvantages with using assignment essays as an assessment tool, there are sound educational purposes underpinning this practice. This essay examines the reasons why assignment essays are beneficial for student learning and considers some of the problems with this method of assessment.
Assignment essay tasks are set to assist students to develop mastery of their study subject. Firstly, assignment tasks enhance understandings about subject matter. Yang and Baker (2005) reason that \write about the meanings you gain from your research\Zapper, 2006) clearly demonstrates that students learn the writing conventions of a subject area while they are researching, reading and writing in their discipline. This activity helps them to \
matter and how to write in that disciplinary area by researching and writing assignment essays. Using assignment essays for assessment supports student learning better than the traditional examination system. It is considered that course-work assignment essays can lessen the extreme stress experienced by some students over 'sudden-death' end of semester examinations: If we insist that all students write about everything they have learned in their study courses at the same time and in the same place (e.g. in examinations), we are not giving all of our students equal opportunities. Some students are not daunted by the exam experience while others suffer 'exam nerves' and perform at the lowest level of their capabilities. (Wonderland University, 2006, p. 4)
Additionally, Jones et al. (2004, pp. 36-37) propose that assignment essays can be used to assess student learning mid-course and so provide them with helpful feedback before they are
subjected to the exam experience. Exams only provide students with a mark rather than specific feedback on their progress. Therefore, setting assignment essays for a substantial part of student assessment is a much fairer approach than one-off examination testing.
As an assessment tool, assignment essays have some disadvantages for lecturers and students. It has been found that assignment essays consume a great deal of staff time and money to mark and student time to prepare (Sankey & Liger, 2005, p. 192). A consequence of this is that
feedback to students is frequently delayed, and this is much less useful to students than rapid feedback (p. 294). It is partly because of these disadvantages of time and expense that other assessments such as multiple-choice tests and short answer questions have an enduring place in the tertiary learning environment.
To conclude, it seems that assignment essays continue to have a prominent role in tertiary education as an assessment tool. This is mainly because they are very effective in developing knowledge and writing skills for subject areas. Also, assignment essays can be less stressful than
examinations as they allow students to show their understanding of content in less pressured circumstances. On the other hand, the time consuming nature of writing and marking essays points to some disadvantages that also need to be considered. The weight of evidence, however, supports the writing of assignment essays for student assessment because this approach has such positive and proven effects for improved student learning. References
Bloggs, J. (2003). Linking teaching, learning and succeeding in higher education. London: Bookworld.
Jinx, J.M. (2004). Student essay writing. Journal of Research in University Education, 9(2), 114-125.
Jones, J., Smith, P.L., Brown, K., Zong J., Thompson, K. & Fung, P.A. (2004). Helpline: Essays and the university student. Tokyo: Courtyard Printers.
Sankey, J.M. & Liger, T.U. (2003). Learning to write essays [CD-ROM]. Sydney: Wonderland University.
Taylor, G. (1989). The student's writing guide for the arts and social sciences. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press.
Wonderland University (2006). Attributes of a university graduate. Retrieved from doi:10.1098/063-112
Yang, S. & Baker, O.E. (2005). Essay writing and the tertiary student. Melbourne: Diamond Press. Zapper, Y. (2006). Learning essay-writing. In F.T. Fax & Y. Phoney (Eds.), Learning Experiences at University (pp. 55-70). Calcutta: Academic Scholar Press.
Sample 11
The Cost of Tourism in the Cook Islands
In theory, tourism brings substantial economic benefits to a country. But who gains the wealth generated? In recent times tour operators have brought large numbers of tourists to the Cook Islands to enjoy their beauty and the traditional life style. Local people meet this demand in the form of profit generation. Can it be argued that tourism in the Cook Islands has brought wealth and well-being for the majority of the local population? Tourism is also promoted as creating jobs and fostering social relations, and in particular a better understanding between nations. However, there is, according to one researcher, \growing body of empirical evidence that the so-called 'benefits' of tourism are often greatly outweighed by the substantial long-term social and environmental costs incurred\Cook Islands, tourism's economic and social benefits are unfortunately unrealised ideals and that instead it has put stresses and strains on both the country's economic wellbeing and its social values. （This is the introductory paragraph, giving the background to the essay and specifying its focus.）
Turning first to the alleged economic benefits of tourism, we can see that in the case of the Cook Islands, there is a variety of sources of income from tourist receipts. According to a 1991 visitor survey (Tourism Council of the South Pacific, 1991), after beach activities and natural scenery (62%), visitors to the Cook Islands are looking for entertainment and folklore and culture experiences (27%). Tourists contribute to the local economy by spending money on travel to and around the country, as well as on accommodation, food, entertainment and souvenirs. Results from this same survey, for example, revealed that in the survey period (October 1991 to February 1992) close to 90% of tourists surveyed stayed in hotels or similar accommodation. Also, close to 70% of total tourist expenditure was on accommodation, restaurants and bars, with a further 16% on transport, tours and entertainment (Tourism Council of the South Pacific, 1991). Tourists are thus helping to create jobs which are based on making them feel welcome and at the same time they put cash into the economy directly by paying for services. （This paragraph outlines some of the claimed economic benefits.）
There are down sides however. The Cook Islands does not have the capacity to own and maintain businesses such as large airline companies or tourist hotels. They are owned by other countries such as New Zealand or multinational conglomerates. The cost of travel and accommodation, which constitutes a large part of a tourist's expenditure, goes directly to the foreign-owned airlines and hotels. These outside interests draw the bulk of the profit they create out of the country. Little of it reaches the local economy. According to Milne (1987), overseas operators receive approximately 60% of all tourist receipts, while local Europeans receive 23%, with the remaining 17% flowing to Cook Islands owned enterprises. It is likely that these disproportionate shares of control of the tourist dollar will have spin off effects on the social fabric. As Milne claims \crucial factor in determining the level of negative social impacts is the degree to which local participation in the ownership and control of the industry is undermined\Tourism in the Cook Islands in the late eighties appears to have provided overwhelming economic benefit to foreigners rather than the local population. This may well have impacted negatively on the social fabric. It is beyond the scope of the essay to examine this, but Milne's claim seems a reasonable one. （This and the following paragraph critique the point of view