which led to the distinction between linguistic potential (what speakers can do with language) and behavior (what speakers actually do with language). In Halliday‘s distinction between potential and behavior, potential is similar to Saussure‘s ―langue‖ and Chomsky‘s competence, and behavior is similar to Saussure‘s ―parole‖ and Chomsky‘s performance.
7. Modern linguistics started with the publication of F. de Saussure‘ s book ―Course in General Linguistics‖ in the early 20th century. So Saussure is often described as ―father of modern linguistics‖.
The general approach traditionally formed to the study of language before that is roughly referred to as ―traditional grammar.‖ They differ in several basic ways:
Firstly, linguistics is descriptive while traditional grammar is prescriptive. A linguist is interested in what is said, not in what he thinks ought to be said. He describes language in all its aspects, but does not prescribe rules of ―correctness‖.
Secondly, modern linguistics regards the spoken language as primary, not the written. Traditional grammarians, on the other hand, tend to emphasize, may be over-emphasize, the importance of the written word, partly because of its permanence.
Then, modern linguistics differs from traditional grammar also in that it does not force languages into a Latin-based framework. To modern linguists ,it is unthinkable to judge one language by standards of another. They are trying to set up a universal framework, but that would be based on the features shared by most of the languages used by mankind.
Chapter I Introduction
I. Decide whether each of the following statements is True or False:
1. Linguistics is generally defined as the scientific study of language. 2.Linguistics studies particular language, not languages in general. 3. A scientific study of language is based on what the linguist thinks.
4. In the study of linguistics, hypotheses formed should be based on language facts and checked against the observed facts.
5. General linguistics is generally the study of language as a whole.
6. General linguistics, which relates itself to the research of other areas, studies the basic concepts, theories, descriptions, models and methods applicable in any linguistic study.
7. Phonetics is different from phonology in that the latter studies the combinations of the sounds to convey meaning in communication.
8. Morphology studies how words can be formed to produce meaningful sentences.
9. The study of the ways in which morphemes can be combined to form words is called morphology.
10. Syntax is different from morphology in that the former not only studies the morphemes, but also the combination of morphemes into words and words into sentences. 11. The study of meaning in language is known as semantics. 12. Both semantics and pragmatics study meanings.
13. Pragmatics is different from semantics in that pragmatics studies meaning not in isolation, but in context.
14.Social changes can often bring about language changes.
15. Sociolinguistics is the study of language in relation to society.
16. Modern linguistics is mostly prescriptive, but sometimes descriptive. 17. Modern linguistics is different from traditional grammar.
18. A diachronic study of language is the description of language at some point in time. 19 Modern linguistics regards the written language as primary, not the written language. 20. The distinction between competence and performance was proposed by F. de Saussure. II. Fill in each of the following blanks with one word which begins with the letter given:
21. Chomsky defines ― competence‖ as the ideal user's k__________ of the rules of his language.
22.Langue refers to the a__________ linguistic system shared by all the members of a speech community while the parole is the concrete use of the conventions and application of the rules. 23.D_________ is one of the design features of human language which refers to the phenomenon that language consists of two levels: a lower level of meaningless individual sounds and a higher level of meaningful units.
24.Language is a system of a_________ vocal symbols used for human communication.
25. The discipline that studies the rules governing the formation of words into permissible sentences in languages is called s________.
26. Human capacity for language has a g ____ basis, but the details of language have to be taught and learned.
27. P ____ refers to the realization of langue in actual use.
28. Findings in linguistic studies can often be applied to the settlement of some practical problems. The study of such applications is generally known as a________ linguistics.
29.Language is p___________ in that it makes possible the construction and interpretation of new signals by its users. In other words, they can produce and understand an infinitely large number of sentences which they have never heard before.
30. Linguistics is generally defined as the s ____ study of language.
III. There are four choices following each statement. Mark the choice that can best complete the statement.
31. If a linguistic study describes and analyzes the language people actually use, it is said to be ______________.
A. prescriptive B. analytic C. descriptive D. linguistic
32.Which of the following is not a design feature of human language? A. Arbitrariness B. Displacement C. Duality D. Meaningfulness
33. Modern linguistics regards the written language as ____________. A. primary B. correct C. secondary D. stable
34. In modern linguistics, speech is regarded as more basic than writing, because ___________. A. in linguistic evolution, speech is prior to writing
B. speech plays a greater role than writing in terms of the amount of information conveyed. C. speech is always the way in which every native speaker acquires his mother tongue D. All of the above
35. A historical study of language is a ____ study of language. A. synchronic B. diachronic C. prescriptive D. comparative
36.Saussure took a (n)__________ view of language, while Chomsky looks at language from a ________ point of view.
A. sociological…psychological B. psychological…sociological C. applied… pragmatic D.semantic and linguistic
37. According to F. de Saussure, ____ refers to the abstract linguistic system shared by all the members of a speech community.
A. parole B. performance C. langue D. Language
38. Language is said to be arbitrary because there is no logical connection between _________ and meanings.
A. sense B. sounds C. objects D. ideas
39. Language can be used to refer to contexts removed from the immediate situations of the speaker. This feature is called_________,
A. displacement B. duality
C. flexibility D. cultural transmission
40. The details of any language system is passed on from one generation to the next through ____ , rather than by instinct.
A. learning B. teaching C. books D. both A and B
Chapter 2 Phonology
Language is primarily vocal. The primary medium of human language is sound. Linguists are not interested in all sounds, but in speech sounds----sounds that convey meaning in human communication.
Phonetics
----A branch of linguistics which studies the characteristics of speech sounds and provides methods for their description, classification and transcription, e.g. [p] bilabial, stop.
Three branches of phonetics
Articulatory phonetics----from the speakers‘ point of view, ―how speakers produce speech sounds‖ the production of speech sounds. It is of our major concern
Auditory phonetics----from the hearers‘ point of view, ―how sounds are perceived‖ the perceptive mechanism of speech sounds
Acoustic phonetics----from the physical way or means by which sounds are transmitted from one to another.
the physical properties of speech sounds
The speech organs
Where does the air stream come from?
From the lung
What is the function of vocal cords? Controlling the air stream
What are the three cavities?
Pharyngeal cavity ---- the throat; The oral cavity ---- the mouth; Nasal cavity ---- the nose.
Transcription of speech sounds
A standardized and internationally accepted system of phonetic transcription is the International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA). The basic principle of the IPA is using one letter to represent one speech sound.
The IPA attempts to represent each sound of human speech with a single symbol and the symbols are enclosed in brackets [ ] to distinguish phonetic transcriptions from the spelling system of a language.
In more detailed transcription (narrow transcription) a sound may be transcribed with a symbol to which a smaller is added in order to mark the finer distinctions.
Broad transcription ---- used in dictionary and textbook for general purpose, without diacritics, e.g. ], [ pit ] ?clear [
Narrow transcription ---- used by phonetician for careful study, with diacritics, e.g. dark [ l ], aspirated [ p ]
Some major articulatory variables ---- dimensions on which speech sounds may vary:
Voicing---- voiced & voiceless (Two consonants sharing the same place and manner of articulation become a pair, which is distinguished by voiceless or voiced. ) Nasality ---- nasal & non-nasal
Aspiration ----- aspirated & unaspirated
Classification of English speech sounds
---- English speech sounds are generally classified into two large categories: Vowels and Consonants
Note: The essential difference between these two classes is that in the production of the former the airstream meets with no obstruction of any kind in the throat, the nose or the mouth, while in that of the latter it is somehow obstructed.
Classification of consonants
---- English consonants may be classified according to two dimensions: The manner of articulation The place of articulation
The manner of articulation
stops/plosives: [p],? , [t], [d], [k], [g];
],?], [v], [s], [z], [? fricatives: [? ], [h];?], [?], [?[ ?];??], [?? affricates: [? liquids:? ];?[l](lateral), [ ?];?], [?], [? nasals: [?
? ].?glides/semivowels: [w], [
The place of articulation
? bilabial: [p], ], [w];?, [ ], [v];?? labiodental: [ ? ? ];?], [? dental: [
alveolar: [t], [d], [s], [z], [n], [l],? [r]; ];??], [ ??], [??], [?], [? palatal: [? velar: [k],? ?];?[g], [ glottal: [h].?
The place of articulation 1. Bilabial; 2. Labiodental;
3. Dental or interdental; 4. Alveolar;
5. Palatoalveolar; 6. Palatal; 7. Velar; 8. Uvular; 9. Glottal.
The description of English consonants Page 20 (textbook)
Classification of vowels
Different vowels are determined by the position of the tongue and the relative opening of the lips.
The criteria of vowel description
1. the part of the tongue that is raised---front, center or back
2. the opening of the mouth----close, semi-close, semi-open, open 3. the shape of the lips---rounded, unrounded 4. the length of the sound---tense, lax (紧，松) Monophthongs or pure/single vowels? ? Diphthongs or gliding vowels
Monophthongs or pure/single vowels
----According to which part of the tongue is held highest in the process of production, the vowels can be distinguished as:
front? ?]?], [?], [?], [?], [?], [??vowels: [