],?], [?? central vowels: [? ];?[
].??], [?], [??], [?], [?? back vowels: [?
According to the openness of the mouth ].?], [??], [?], [?? Close: [? ? ];??], [?Semi-close: [ ];?], [? Semi-open: [?
],? Open: [? ];?], [??], [?], [?[
According to the shape of the lips or the degree of lip rounding ];?], [??], [?], [?? rounded: [?
? ].??], [?], [?], [??], [?], [?], [?], [?], [?], [??unrounded: [
According to the length of the vowels ],??], [?? long: [? ]??], [??], [??[
],?], [?], [?], [?], [?], [?], [?], [? short: [? ].?[
Diphthongs/gliding vowels?
],??], [??], [?? [? ].??], [??], [??], [??], [??[
Exercises: underline the words that begin with a sound as required. A bilabial consonant: mad sad bad cad pad? had lad A velar consonant: nod god cod pod rod?
? Labiodental consonant: rat fat sat mat chat vat pat An alveolar? consonant: nick lick sick tick kick quick A palato-alveolar? consonant: sip ship tip chip lip zip A dental consonant: lie buy? thigh thy tie rye A glide: one war yolk rush?
Underline the words that end with a sound as required: A fricative?
pay horse tough rice breath push sing wreathe hang cave message A nasal? train bang leaf limb A stop?
drill pipe fit crab fog ride laugh rack through tip An affricate: rack such ridge booze?
Underline the words that contain the sound as required: A central vowel:? mad lot but boot word A front vowel:?
reed pad load fate bit bed cook
A rounded vowel:?
who he bus her hit true boss bar walk A back vowel:?
paid reap fool top good father
Describe the underlined consonants according to three dimensions:
vd/vl place manner Letter Brother Sunny Hopper Itching Lodger Calling Singing Robber Either
Phonology
Phonology studies the patterning of speech sounds, that is, the ways in which speech sounds form systems and patterns in human languages.
Phonology and phonetics are two studies different in perspectives, which are concerned with the study of speech sounds.
Phonology focuses on three fundamental questions.
What sounds make up the list of sounds that can distinguish meaning in a particular language? What sounds vary in what ways in what context?
What sounds can appear together in a sequence in a particular language?
Phonetics & phonology
Both are concerned with the same aspect of language----the speech sounds. But they differ in their approach and focus.
Phonetics is of general nature; it is interested in all the speech sounds used in all human languages; it aims to answer questions like: how they are produced, how they differ from each other, what phonetic features they have, how they can be classified, etc.
Phonology aims to discover how speech sounds in a language form patterns and how these sounds are used to convey meaning in linguistic communication. Phone, phoneme, allophone
Phone: the different versions of the abstract unit – phoneme
Phoneme: the mean-distinguishing sound in a language, placed in slash marks Allophone: a set of phones, all of which are versions of one phoneme
Phone
A phone---- a phonetic unit or segment. The? speech sounds we hear and produce during linguistic communication are all phones. Phones do not necessarily distinguish meaning, some do,
some don‘t, e.g. t ]??[ b & t]?t ], [sp?[ b & t].?[sp Phoneme
A? phoneme---- is a phonological unit; it is a unit of distinctive value; an abstract unit, not a particular sound, but it is represented by a certain phone in certain phonetic context, e.g. the phoneme /p/ can be represented differently t].?p] and [sp?t], [t?in [p Allophone
Allophones ---- the phones? that can represent a phoneme in different phonetic environments.
Phonemic contrast, complementary distribution and minimal pair.
Phonemic? contrast----different or distinctive phonemes are in phonemic contrast, e.g. t].?t ] and [p? /b/ and /p/ in [ b
Complementary? distribution----allophones of the same phoneme are in complementary distribution. They do not distinguish meaning. They occur in different phonetic contexts, e.g. dark [l] & clear [l], aspirated [p] & unaspirated [p].
Minimal pair
Minimal pair----when two different forms? are identical (the same) in every way except for one sound segment which occurs in the same place in the strings, the two sound combinations are said to form a minimal pair, e.g.
beat, bit, bet, bat, boot, but, bait, bite, boat.
Some rules of phonology Sequential rules? ? Assimilation rule Deletion rule?
Sequential rules ---- the rules that govern the combination of sounds in a particular language, e.g. in English, ―k b i I‖ might possibly form blik, klib, bilk, kilb.
If a word begins with a [l] or a [r], then the next sound must be a vowel.
If three consonants should cluster together at the beginning of a word, the combination should obey the following three rules, e.g. spring, strict, square, splendid, scream. a) the first phoneme must be /s/,
b) the second phoneme must be /p/ or /t/ or /k/, c) the third phoneme must be /l/ or /r/ or /w/.
] never occurs in initial position in English and??* [ standard Chinese,but it does occur in some dialects, e.g. in Cantonese: “牛肉，我， 俄语??”
Assimilation rule----assimilates one sound to another by ―copying‖ a feature of a sequential phoneme, thus making the two phones similar, e.g. the prefix in is pronounced differently when in different phonetic contexts:
? n]? indiscreet alveolar [ inconceivable ? ]??? velar [
input bilabial? ]??[ Assimilation in Mandarin 好啊 hao wa? 海啊 hai? ya 看啊 kan na? ?? 唱啊 chang ? 跳啊 tiao wa? ……
Deletion rule---- it tells us when a sound is to be deleted although it is orthographically represented, e.g. design, paradigm, there is no [g] sound; but the [g] sound is pronounced in their corresponding forms signature, designation, paradigmatic.
Syllable (what is syllable?)
? Ancient Greek: a unit of speech sound consisting of a vowel or a vowel with one or more than one consonant.
Dictionary: word or part of a word which? contains a vowel sound or consonant acting as a vowel.
The syllable? n].?consists of three parts: the ONSET, the PEAK, the CODA, e.g. [m ? The peak is the essential part. It is usually formed by a vowel. But [l], [n] and [m] might also function as peaks as in ― apple, hidden, communism‖.
Suprasegmental features----the phonemic features that occur above the level of the segments ( larger than phoneme):
Stress: word stress and sentence stress Word stress
The location of stress in English? distinguishes meaning, e.g. a shift in stress in English may change the part of speech of a word:
cord?bel; re?crease; re?port; in? verb: im … record …?rebel; ?increase; ?import; ? noun:
? Similar alteration of stress also occurs between a compound noun and a phrase consisting of the same elements:
blackbird; ? compound: hotdog…?greenhouse; ? house; hot?bird; green ? noun phrase: black dog…?
The meaning-distinctive role played by word stress is also? manifested in the combinations of -ing forms and nouns:
modifier: sleepingbag…?readingroom; ?dining-room; ? baby; swimming?doer: sleeping plane…?fish; flying ?
Sentence stress----the relative force? given to the components of a sentence. Generally, nouns, main verbs, adjectives, adverbs, numerals and demonstrative pronouns are stressed. Other categories like articles, person pronouns, auxiliary verbs prepositions and conjunctions are usually not stressed.
Note: for pragmatic reason, this rule is not? always right, e.g. we may stress any part in the following sentences. He is driving my car.
My mother bought me a new skirt yesterday. Tone
Tones are pitch variations,which are caused by the? differing rates of vibration of the vocal cords.
English is not a? tone language, but Chinese is. ma 妈 (level)
ma 麻 (the second rise) ma 马 (the third rise) ma 骂 (the fourth fall) Intonation
When pitch, stress and length variations are tied to the sentence? rather than to the word, they are collectively known as intonation.
? English has three types of intonation that are most frequently used: ? falling tone (matter of fact statement) rising tone (doubts or? question) the fall-rise tone (implied message)?
For instance, ―That‘s not the book he wants.‖ Grammatical functions of intonations
----Intonation plays an important role in the conveyance of meaning in almost every language, esp. in English.
a) It may indicate different sentence types by pitch direction.
b) It may impose different structures on the sentence by dividing it into different intonation units, e.g. ―John didn‘t come because of Marry‖
Within one intonation unit, it means: John came, but it had nothing to do with Marry. With two intonation units, it means: Marry was the reason why John didn‘t come.
Exercises: Think of the utterance in different intonations: ―Those who bought quickly made a profit.‖
c) It can make a certain part of a sentence especially prominent by placing nucleus on it, e.g. Jack came yesterday by train. d) Its attitudinal functions.
Falling tone ---- matter-of-fact? statement,
downright assertion, commands. Rising tone ----politeness, encouragement,?
pleading.
Note: these can only be very general indications. The specific attitudinal meaning of an intonation pattern must be interpreted within a context.
Summary:
Features that are found over a segment or a sequence of two or more segments are called