14. What are the five types of illocutionary speech acts that identified Searle?s taxonomy?
It is mainly based on these three dimensions of difference that Searle builds his taxonomy, which identifies five types of illocutionary speech acts: (1) assertives/representatives，(2) directives，(3) commissives，(4) expressives，(5) declarations. 15. What did Jenny Thomas think of indirect language as?
Compared with direct language, indirect language is ?costly and risky.?
16. Searle believed that in performing indirect speech acts, there exist two speech acts. What are they?
In performing indirect speech acts, two speech acts instead of one are involved, i.e. primary illocutionary act and secondary illocutionary act.
17. What is the implied meaning termed in Grice?s theory.
The implied meaning is termed conversational implicature in Grice?s theory. 18. What are the most important properties of conversational implicature?
Calculability, cancellability or defeasibility, nondetachability, non-conventionality, indeterminacy
19. What do Sperber and Wison apply to language understanding?
Sperber and Wison apply cognitive psychology and monetary economics to language understanding,
20. What are the two models that Ostensive-Inferential Model base on?
语码模式（Code Model）和推理模式(Inferential Model) 21. What is relevance defined in terms of?
Relevance is defined in terms of contextual effect and processing effort. 22. What are the most important notions that Relevance Theory focus on?
cognition and communication
23. What are the most influential ones in the pragmatic studies of politeness?
In the pragmatic studies of politeness, the most influential are Leech?s Politeness Principle and Brown & Levinson?s politeness strategies.
24. What are the factors that measure the weightiness of a face-threatening act?
The weightiness of a face-threatening act is measured by three factors: social distance, relative power and absolute ranking of impositions.
25. What are the two aspects of face according to Brown & Levinson?
Brown & Levinson define face as the public self-image of an individual, which has two aspects: first positive face, which represents an individual?s desire to be accepted and liked by others; second, there is negative face, which refers to an individual?s right to freedom of action and his/her need not to be imposed upon by others.
26. What are the five sets of politeness strategies put forth by Brown & Levinson?
P. 230 bald on record without redressive actions, positive politeness, negative politeness, off record, and Don?t do the FTA.
27. What are the three types of meaning in the course of communication?
The meaning that is conveyed in the course of communication falls roughly into three types: the asserted meaning, the implied meaning, and the presupposed meaning. 28. What?s the way to tell presupposition from entailment?
To tell presuppositions from entailments, semanticists proposed the so-called ?negation test?. 29. The study of Cross-cultural pragmatics mainly consists of pragmalinguistics,
sociopragmatics and interlanguage pragmatics.
30. What is pragmatics parameters?
Pragmatics parameters refer to those factors that affect the choice of pragmatic strategies, including social distance, power, size of imposition, and rights and obligations. (P. 253)
31. The studies of Interlinguage pragmatics include four aspects: pragmatic understanding, language expression, pragmatic transfer and pragmatic failure.
32. What cause negative pragmatic transfer?
Interlingual interference, Intralingual interference, influence of L1 literacy 33. What are the categories of discourse roles?
Thomas has distinguished five different categories of producer of talk: Speaker, Author,
Reporter, Spokesperson, Mouthpiece; four categories of receivers of talk: Addressee, Audience, Bystander, Eavesdropper.
34. What are the types of pragmatic ambivalence?
Thomas and Yu Dongming divided pragmatic ambivalence into four major types: 1) Pragmatic multivalence, 2) Pragmatic bivalence/plurivalence, 3) Conditional bivalent illocutionary act, and 4) Discoursal ambivalence.
35. Presupposition is associated with some lexical items or certain syntactic structures, which are thus given the name of presupposition triggers. What do you know about them?
A large variety of presupposition triggers in English have been identified. They can be found at the lexical, syntactic, and phonological level. Presupposition triggers at the lexical level:
1) Definite descriptions, 2) Factive verbs 3) Implicative verbs 4) Change of state verbs 5) Iteratives 6）Verbs of judging
Presupposition triggers at the syntactic level:
7）Adverbial clauses and expressions of time 8）Cleft sentences 9)Structures and expressions indicating comparison 10) Non-restrictive attributive clauses 11) Counterfactual conditionals 12) Questions
Presupposition can also be triggered off by some phonological means such as the shift of the normal sentence stress.
36. According to Adaptation Theory, communicative context consists of language users, the mental world, the social world, the physical world, etc.
37. According to Adaptation Theory, the reason why people make choices constantly is that language has variability, negotiability and adaptability.
38. GU Yueguo thought that in Chinese culture, politeness included four basic elements: repectfulness, modesty, attitudinal warmth, and refinement.
39. Generally speaking, pragmatic research includes theoretical exposition and empirical study.
40. In empirical study, people usually adopt observational method which is usually divided into two broad categories: quantitative and qualitative.
III. Put the following passages into Chinese. (10'×1＝10') 分值分布根据两段的长短可能比
例有变化，但总分不变。后面的页码是译文在课本相应页码。
1. Leech summarizes three points about trivalent meaning as illustrated in the second case:
(1) It involves the speaker?s intention to convey a certain meaning which may or may not be evident from the message itself.
(2) Consequently, interpretation by the hearer of this meaning is likely to depend on the context.
(3) Meaning, in this sense, is something which is performed, rather than something that exists in a static way. It involves action (the speaker producing an effect on the hearer) and interaction (the meaning being negotiated between speaker and hearer on the basis of their mutual knowledge.)
(Leech, 1981：320) (P. 12)
2. The following four outward criteria are specified by Leech to judge whether a particular discussion of meaning takes us into the realm of pragmatics: (1) Is reference made to speakers or hearers?
(2) Is reference made to the intention of the speaker? (3) Is reference made to context?
(4) Is reference made to the kind of act performed by means of using language? (P. 13)
3. Grice gives the following characterization of meaning-nn: S meant-nn z by uttering U if and only if
(i) S intended U to cause some effect z in recipient H
(ii) S intended (i) to be achieved simply by H recognizing that intention (i) (P.15)
4. The version provided by J. Lyons is quite representative. He lists six variables:
(i) Each of the participants of communication must know his role and status. The relevant roles are of two kinds: deictic and social, and status here refers to the relative social standing of the participants.
(ii) The participants must know where they are in space and time.
(iii) The participants must be able to categorize the situation in terms of its degree of formality. (iv) The participants must know what medium is appropriate to the situation. (v) The participants must know how to make their utterances appropriate to the subject-matter, and the importance of subject-matter as a determinant in the selection of one dialect or one language rather than another in bilingual or multilingual communities.
(vi) The participants must know how to make their utterances appropriate to the province or domain to which the situation belongs.
(See Lyons, 1977:574ff) (P. 18-19) 5. Searle further condenses these conditions into four felicity conditions: 1). propositional content condition
S predicates a future act which he himself is going to perform. 2). preparatory condition
S believes what he is going to do is beneficial to H and it is something he does not normally do. 3). sincerity condition S intends to the act. 4). essential condition
S undertakes the obligation to do the act. (P. 101)
6. The factors that determine the speaker?s choice are social rather than linguistic. Thomas suggests the following four factors:
(1) The relative power of the speaker over the hearer
(2) The social distance between the speaker and the hearer (3) The degree to which X is rated an imposition in culture Y
(4) Relative rights and obligations between the speaker and the hearer. (Thomas, 1995: 124) (P. 148)
7. The CP subsumes mainly four maxims, which are the actual realizations of the CP. The four maxims of Quantity, Quality, Relation and Manner, were formulated as follows (1991:308):
Maxim of Quantity
1. Make your contribution as informative as is required (for the current purposes for the
exchange.)
2. Do not make your contribution more informative than is required. Maxim of Quality
1. Do not say what you believe to be false.
2. Do not say that for which you lack adequate evidence. Maxim of Relation Be relevant.
Maxim of Manner: Be perspicuous 1. Avoid obscurity of expression. 2. Avoid ambiguity.
3. Be brief (avoid unnecessary prolixity). 4. Be orderly. (p.154)
8. Levinson replaces Grice?s CP and maxims with three principles, i.e. the Quantity Principle, the Information Principle, and the Manner Principle, and each principle subsumes a Speaker?s maxim and a Recipient?s corollary:
The Q-principle Speaker?s maxim:
Do not provide a statement that is informationally weaker than your knowledge of the world allows, unless providing a stronger statement would contravene the I-Principle.
Recipient?s corollary:
Take it that the speaker made the strongest statement consistent with what he or she knows. The I-principle
Speaker?s maxim: The Maxim of Minimisation
Say as little as necessary. That is, produce the minimal linguistic information sufficient to achieve your communicational ends (bearing the Q-principle in mind).
Recipient?s corollary: the Maxim of Enrichment.
Amplify the informational content of the speaker?s utterance, by finding the most specific interpretation, up to what you judge to be the speaker?s intended point.
The M-principle Speaker?s maxim:
Do not use a prolix, obscure or marked expression without reason. Recipient?s corollary:
If the speaker used a prolix or marked expression, he or she did not mean the same as he or she would have, had he or she used the unmarked expression – specifically, he or she was trying to avoid the stereotypical associations and I-implicatures of the unmarked expression. (P. 172-173)
9. Leech further formulates his PP with the negative and positive forms: (in the negative form) “Minimize (other things being equal) the expression of impolite beliefs” and (in the positive form) “Maximize (other things being equal) the expression of polite beliefs” (1983:81). His PP is further categorized into six main maxims, which go in pairs as follows:
1) Tact Maxim (in impositives and commissives )
(a) Minimize cost to other [(b)] Maximize benefit to other 2). Generosity Maxim (in impositives and commissives) (a) Minimize benefit to self [(b)] Maximize cost to self 3) Approbation Maxim (in expressives and assertives)
(a) Minimize dispraise of other [(b)] Maximize praise of other 4) Modesty Maxim (in expressives and assertives)
a) Minimize praise of self [(b)] Maximize dispraise of self 5). Agreement Maxim (in assertives)
a) Minimize disagreement between self and other [(b)] Maximize agreement between self and other 6) Sympathy Maxim (in assertives)
(a) Minimize antipathy between self and other
[(b)] Maximize sympathy between self and other (1983:132)
There are three pairs of key notions (cost and benefit; self and other; minimization and maximization) which are prevalent in the PP. (P. 219)
10. Conversational strategies Utterance-level strategies
Speaker-oriented metapragmatic comments (S-MPCs) Addressee-oriented metapragmatic comments (A-MPCs) Discourse-level strategies, Space-making strategies,
Establishing the purpose of the interaction, and Establishing the nature of the speech event
11. According to Thomas, the study of an activity type can proceed with a statement of its features in the following fashion:
1) The goals of the participants, which might be different from one participant to those of another. They might exploit different kinds of linguistic resources or pragmatic strategies to achieve their respective, different communicative goals.