Life on Crete克里特岛上的生活 * Most people on Crete were farmers. They kept animals, such as cattle, sheep, goats and pigs, and grew wheat, barley, vegetables, plums, grapes and olives. People also ate a lot of fish, which they caught in the sea around the island.岛上大多是农民。他们养牛绵羊山羊和猪，还种小麦大麦蔬菜李子葡萄和橄榄。另外他们在岛边的海里捕了许多鱼。
* C.1700-1450BC / The palaces are rebuilt. Crete is at its most powerful.宫殿得到重建，克里特岛处于鼎盛时期；C.6oooBC / Farmer settle on Crete农民定居克里特。 Crete was invaded by people known as the Mycenaeans, who came from Greece. The Minoans never really recovered and their civilization gradually died out.大约同时，克里特人遭到来自希腊的Mycenaeans人的入侵。此后迈诺斯人再也没有真正复兴，他们的文明逐渐消失了
Crete is a large island,located midway between Asia Minor and Greece,closer to Asia than to Eurpoe.The climate is comfortable and the soil is fertile.it is isolated from the mainland of Asia Minor,the middle East,and Egypt.This is why Crete was affected by the power struggles of the mainland,which always shook samll states like Judah and Israel.
Resources were limited.As the population began to grow,it is evident that the resources of the island became increasingly insufficient to handle the increased population.Some migrate took their growing civilization with them and spread Minoan culture ,religion ,and government all over the Aegean Sea.
In order to facilitate trade,the Cretans and their Aegean relatives developed the most advanced navy that had ecer been seen.The Cretans probably did not develop a military navy,as the Egyptians did,but concentrated solely on trade and mercantilism.They did build what looked like warships,but it seemed that these warships weremost likely mercantile ship with the capability of defense against pirates,
Cretan artifacts artifacts turned up all over Asia Minor,and they seemed to have been involved in trade with the tribal clans living in Greece.Crete became the central exporter of wine oil jewelry and highly crafted works.in turn ,they became importers of raw materials and food.The trade routes enabled the Minoans to do trade in such diverse areas as Trukey Cyprus Egypt Afghanistan Scandinavia.Goods traded with Knossos were copper,ivory,amethyst,lapis lazuli,carnelian,gold,amber,and other important commodities.
The MInoan visual art much of Minoan art,has religious and political function.Art in Mesopotamia and Persia served political and religious purpose,while compelling and aesthetically cery sophisticated,the art served a larger purpose.Minoan art frequently involves unimportant,trivial details of everyday life,or representations of sports events.It is simply the design for design's sake.Minoan art bears witness to a civilization that values elegance and style. * C.1650BC / Linear A writing is used.使用Linear A书写法
*
C.1450BC / The palaces are destroyed. The Mycenaeans invade. The Minoan
civilization gradually dies out.宫殿被毁，Mycenaeans人入侵，迈诺斯文明逐渐消失
The mycenaean civilization(c 1600----1100BC)1,the mycenaeans:The broken coastline,indented with countless small harbors,invited the people to become
sailors,traders,and warriors at sea.By1600BC enterprises by sea had transformed a
number of the independent Greek communities into wealthy,fortified states.Chief among them was Mycenae.
The mycenaeans ranged far and wide as merchants,trading raw goods such as oil and animal skins for jewelry and other goods from Crete,Asia Minor and Epygt. 1500BC,they began burying their most powerful people in large chambers cut into the side of a hill.the priciple purpose was probably a display of power.
3,The war with the Trojans,the only time these cities appeared united was during the war against Troy,a prosperous city in Asia Minor.Apparently the Trojans were rich and offered a tempting prospect to pirates and looters,this was probably the real cause of the Trojan War.
4,the downfall of the mycenaean society:the war against Troy was the last feat of the Mycenaea Age.Reason:the unrest within the society such as peasant revolts against the ruling calss.invasions and battles in the area of the Aegean(have seriously influenced on trade).invasion by people from the north ,a serious drought in the area,causing crop failures.this is a combination of factors. The Archaic Period（文艺复兴时期） (800——600 BC)
（1） Homer and his epics Story teller Homer Trojan War
The Trojan war was the product of Mycenaean culture,the Homeric poems must have developed a long time beginning from the Greek Dark Ages .特洛伊战争是迈锡尼文化的产生地，荷马史诗在希腊黑暗时期之前就已经发展很长一段时间了。
There are two very important words repeatedly used throughout the Homeric epics :“honor” and “virtue” or “greatness”.在荷马史诗中有两个重要的词反复重复使用：“荣誉” 和“美德”或者“greatness”
“Theme” to the epic is “Achilles’ choice” 诗的主题
Iliad : Achilles 阿喀琉斯（希腊勇士）in the ninth year of the war
Odyssey《奥德赛》 : Odysseus奥德修斯 the idea to take Troy by offering the citizens a large wooden horse ; The Trojan War ; the homecoming回到故乡 after 10 years Religion 宗教
Apollo ,the sun god ,from western Asia Minor 阿波罗 太阳神 从小亚细亚；Aphrodite,goddess of love, from Cyprus 阿佛洛狄特 爱神；Athena,goddess of wisdom 雅典娜 智慧女神 Artemis,goddess of forests 阿耳特弥斯 月亮和狩猎女神 (2) Literature
1/ Hesiod赫西奥德(公元前8世纪,希腊诗人)；Works and Days ; the Theogony《神谱》 2/ Sappho莎孚(公元前6世纪前后的希腊女诗人)
Discuss deep human emotions of love and loss；Lyrist female poet抒情女诗人 (4) Life in The Polis希腊城邦
the greatest political innovation创新 in this period
The inhabitants in Greek city had more social mobility than those in any Near Eastern kingdoms.在希腊城邦的居民比附近东部的王国有更多的社会灵活度,They didn’t have rigid divisions界限 between citizens.
There is no Hereditary nobility 世袭贵族
Woman’s primary duty was to remain at home weaving and managing the house织布和管理打点家事；The modesty and silence in women were praised谦和和默无声息。
Life in a polis ,for all citizens ,was shared in many ways with all other 城邦的所有生活和大家都用不同的方式分享
Classical Greek Culture古典希腊的文化(Ca. 500-323 B.C.) (1) Greek drama (tragedy)希腊戏剧（悲剧）
* Drama originated from a choral song in Athens in honor of the god Dionysus;戏剧源于雅典城里的一首纪念酒神的合唱歌曲
* Probably shortly before 500 B.C. a single actor began to sing or talk with the chorus, thus allowing the story to become more complex;大约在公元前500年之前不久，一个演员唱起了歌或者给合唱队讲故事，如此故事变得复杂一些。
* The playwrights derived most of their plots from the familiar tales of gods and heroes in Greek mythology;剧作家写的大部分情节，来源于他们所熟悉的希腊神话中神的故事以及英雄的故事。
* The themes: what is humankind’s relationship to the gods? What is justice? And if the gods are just, why do they make people suffer? ( These are fundamental questions for all religions).主题：人和神是什么关系？什么是正义？神如果是正义的，为什么使人受苦？（这是所有宗教都必须回答的基本问题）
* In its developed form drama became a vehicle for interpreting human experience;在这种发展形式里，戏剧成了对人类经验的一种解读。
* It is probably for the education in ethics, the surviving plays combine dramatic power with subtle moral problems.或许是出于道德教育的目的，保留下来的戏剧通过戏剧手段提及敏感的道德问题 * Aeschylus (525?-456)埃斯库罗斯 * The tragedy of Orestes, son of Agamemnon( the only one trilogy which has survived);阿加曼农之子奥列斯特斯的悲剧（仅存的一个三部曲）
* The central theme is the nature of justice, which Aeschylus explores in a tale of multiple murders and vengeance;中心主题是正义的本质，埃斯库罗斯在一个多重谋杀和复仇的故事里探讨了这个问题。
* For Aeschylus, human beings are often trapped in complicated situations, in a dilemma, out of which there is no escape. 埃斯库罗斯认为，人类常常陷入复杂的困境，进退维谷，无处可逃。 Sophocles (496?-406)索佛科斯
* Sophocles carried the evolution of drama further: unlike the dramatic-typed characters in Aeschylus dramas, Sophocles characters are sharply characterized characters; he also added a third character enabling him to concentrate more on the interplay of characters; besides, he showed a greater interest in personality. 索佛科斯进一步发展了戏剧：不像埃斯库罗斯戏剧里的人物那么戏剧性，他的人物性格刻画得非常深刻。他还加入第三种人物性格，专注于各种性格的相互作用。此外，他在探讨人格方面显示出极大的兴趣。
* His play Oedipus the King, the most famous and nearly perfect specimen that survives.他的戏剧《俄狄浦斯王》最为著名，是留存下来近乎完美的文本。
* Freud drew on it in his theory of the Oedipus complex, a child’s desire for the parent of the opposite sex and rejection of the parent of the same sex.弗洛伊德在恋母情结理论中提及它。？ Euripides(480?-406?)欧里庇得斯 * His plays show a still later stage of evolution: he carries psychological analysis much further than his predecessors; he is interested in how the inner workings
of the mind and emotions shape a person’s destiny;他的戏剧显示出一个较后阶段的演变：他比前辈们更加深入地进行心理分析，他的兴趣在于一个人的心灵和情感的内部运作如何造就命运。
* Medea, his most familiar play shows.《美狄亚》——他最为人所熟知的戏剧 (2) Arstophanes(448?-385?) (comedy)阿斯托分尼斯（喜剧）
* Unlike tragedy, comedy treats the real world: Aristophanes satirized the
Peloponnesian War, political leaders, intellectuals– including Socrates—and the failings of democracy, using fantasy and burlesque to demolish his targets.不像悲剧，喜剧描写现实生活：阿斯托分尼斯关注内战，政治领袖，知识分子——包括苏格拉底——和民主的失败，用荒诞和滑稽的笔触讽刺他的目标。
* Aristophanes made the sharpest attacks for democratic leaders after Pericles. In The Knights(424), a general tries to persuade an ignorant sausage-seller to unseat Cleon, one of those demagogues: 阿斯托分尼斯极端尖锐地攻击伯里克利之后的民主领袖。在The Knight这部喜剧中，一个将军试图说服一个无知的香肠商人除掉克里昂（那些煽动政治家之一） (3)Historical writing史书
Drama is one way of examining the human condition. Another way of doing this is to write history – to analyze the past and compare it with the present. 戏剧是研究人类的一种方法，还有一种方法是写历史，分析过去，对比古今。 --- Herodotus(484?-425?), the Father of History, who wrote about the Greek war with Persia.希罗多德，历史学之父，写希腊和波斯的战争。
--- Thucydides (455?-395?), the successor of Herodotus, who participated in the Peloponnesian War and wrote its history.修昔底德，希罗多德的继承者，参加过内战并叙述其历史。
A quotation from Thucydides about the lust for power修昔底德对权利欲望的评判。 * Our opinion of the gods and our knowledge of men lead us to conclude that it is a general and necessary law of nature to rule whatever one can. This is not a law that we made ourselves, nor were we the first to act upon it when it was made. We found it already in existence, and we shall leave it to exist for ever among those who come after us. We are merely acting in accordance with it, and we know that you or anybody else with the same power as ours would be acting in precisely the same way. (Throughout his work, he presents a series of speeches and debates about various issues and decisions.)对神的观念和我们人自己的知识使我们断定，应该有一个普遍而必要的自然法则限制一个人的行为权利。这并非人为的法律，也不是从我们开始设立的，而是早就已经存在的了。我们应该永久保留，传给后人。我们只不过是遵照它来办事，我们知道你或者其他任何有同样权利的人都应该这样行事。 4. Art, Architecture, and Sculpture艺术，建筑，雕塑 * Art艺术
* The reverse; the Red Figured style; this style allowed more subtlety and finer details than did the Black Figured style倒退；红色图纹风格;??? Architecture建筑
* The Greeks built magnificent temples from gleaming white marble. Most temples had a triangular-shaped roof held up by rows of columns (pillars). All over the world, people have copied the style of Greek buildings.
希腊人用光洁的大理石建造了宏伟的寺庙，寺庙大多有着三角形状的屋顶，由排柱支撑。全世界都模仿希腊这种建筑风格。
Greek columns were built in three different styles三种不同风格的希腊石柱 Sculpture 雕塑
* Sculpture became more graceful and freer than the kouros), as artists learned how to show the body in action.雕塑比kouros的更加优美和自由，因为艺术家们知道怎样表现运动的人体。
* The realism was touched with ideal qualities: with the typical Greek love of analysis and study of form, artists tried to present the image of men and women in their perfection.现实主义杂带着理想主义因子：通过分析和研究典型的希腊爱情模式，艺术家们努力表现完美的男人和女人 * This idealized realism appears in a bronze stature of Zeus about to hurl a missile一尊宙斯即将投掷标枪的青铜像体现有这种理想化的现实主义。
The statue combines the power and dignity of a god with the idea perfection of a human being. Its harmonious beauty also suggests that Greeks were the bearers of civilization and enlightenment as compared with other peoples这尊雕像融合了一个有伟力有尊严的神和一个完美的人。它的和谐之美表明：与其他民族相比，希腊人是文明与智慧的主导。
(5). Philosophy哲学
* Drama, historical writing and artistic depiction (which we will discuss later) are all ways of looking at human experience and subjecting it to a critique. Another, and one that the Greeks invented, is philosophy—the attempt to use reason, and argument if necessary, to discover why things are as they are.戏剧史书和艺术描写（我们稍后会讨论）总是专注于人类的经验并加以评判借鉴。此外希腊人还发明了哲学，试图探求（若有必要则讨论）事物的本质原因 * Greeks became skeptical about the accounts that they found in their own mythology, and they began to suspect that there was a logical order to the universe and that humanity had the capacity to discover it.希腊人很怀疑他们神话里面的东西，他们开始怀疑宇宙存在一个逻辑顺序，而且人类有能力发现它。
* Pythagoras, Heracleitue, Democritus毕达哥拉斯；阿克来，克利特；he Sophists and Socrates;诡辩家和苏格拉底；Plato and Aristotle.柏拉图和亚历士多德。 Socrates(469-399)苏格拉底:He transformed philosophy into an inquiry about the moral responsibility of people. His basic question was not, What is the world made of ? But, What is right action and how can I know it is right? He was concerned with the loss of ethical values during the Peloponnesian War. His mission, as he saw it, was to persuade young men of Athens to examine their lives in the pursuit of moral truth.他把哲学变成人们的一种道德责任（？），他的基本论题并不是“世界由什么组成的”，而是“什么是正确的行为”“我怎么知道它是正确的”。他很关注在内战中人们伦理价值观的丧失。在他看来，他的使命是说服雅典的年轻人审视自己的生命，追求道德真理。
Plato:(428---347BC)Plato continued Socrates'investigation of maral conduct.He has left a massive series of philosophical books,mainly in the form of dialogues in which Socrates is the main speaker.But Plato went far beyong,he sought truth through a complex system that is still endlessly discussed and studied by critics. Aristotle(384---322BC) Plato's most famous student was Aristotle.His father was the