personal physician to Philip of Macedon and Aristotle was,for a time at least,the personal tutor of Alexander the Great,like Socrates,he was also charged with impiety,but he fled rather than face the charges.
So it can be seen that whereas Plato suggested that man was born with knowledge,Aristotle argued that knowledge comes from experience.And it can also be seen that in the space of just a few decades,mankind witnessed the essence of those two philosophieal traditions which have occupied the western intellectual traditions for the past 2500years,Rationalism:knowledge comes before ezperience,and empiricism,knowledge comes after experience.
It perhaps goes without saying that the Western intellectual tradition,as well as the history of Western philosophy,must begin with an investigation of ancient Greek thought,From Thales and the matter philosophers to the empiricism of Aristotle,the Greeks passed on to the West a spirit of rational inquiry that is very much the modern intellectual property.And while people may never think of Plato or Aristotle as they carry on in their daily lives,it is their inquiry into knowledge that has served as the foundation for all subsequent inquiries.W.H.Auden said,\Greek civilization never existed,we would never have become fully conscious.Which is to say that we would never have become,for better or worse,fully humans. 希腊化时代 The Hellenistic Age(323-30 B.C.)
Stoicism (founded by Zeno)（由芝诺创建）(336--265BC)
* A single divine reason or plan governs the universe;一个简单的神圣原因或计划统治宇宙。
* one should be patient in adversity, for it is a necessary part of the divine plan and one can do nothing to change it;一个人在逆境中应该忍耐，因为这是神圣计划的一个必要部分，人无能为力。
* By cultivating a sense of duty and self-discipline, people can learn to accept their fate; they will then become immune to earthly anxieties and will achieve inner freedom and tranquility;通过培养责任感和廉洁自律意识，人们能够学会接受自己的命运，他们就可以远离俗世的烦恼而取得内心的自由与安宁。
* They believed that people, as rational beings, belong to one family, which would have a profound influence on later Western history: universal membership in the human family, the virtue of tolerance, and compassion for the less fortunate members of the human race.他们相信有理性的人们属于一个家庭，这将深深影响后来的西方历史：在人类大家庭的普遍成员，宽容的美德，和对人类其他不幸运的种族的同情。
罗马共和国 The Roman Republic
* The Unification of Italy意大利的统一(509--264BC)
* The origins of Rome;罗马的起源；The early constitution;早期宪法 * The struggle of the orders (494-287 B.C.);阶级斗争
* Early expansion of Rome;罗马早期扩张；The Roman Imperialism;罗马帝国主义 The Struggle of the Orders阶级斗争(494-287BC) * Within the citizen body, there were two classes: the patricians; and the plebeians在市民群体里，有两个阶层：the patricians和the plebeians
* In 494, the plebeians win the right to elect two men annually to represent them
(tribunes);公元前494年，the plebeians赢取了每年选举两个自己代表的权力
* In 450, the law was codified, resulting the Twelve Tables;公元前450年，此法受限制，形成“十二桌”？
* In 445, plebeians obtained the right of intermarriage with patricians, resulting the new class called \公元前445年，plebeians人获得与patricians人通婚的权力，形成了所谓“贵族”的新阶级。
* In 367, one of the two consuls should be from the tribunes;
* In 287 a law was passed that the assembly of Tribes can pass laws 2. The Age of Imperialism帝国主义时代
* The Punic wars;布匿战争(264—146BC) 公元前264～前146年古代罗马与迦太基之间的3次战争。罗马人称迦太基(Carthage)人为“布匿”(Punici)，故名。第一、二次布匿战争是作战双方为争夺西部地中海霸权而进行的扩张战争，第三次布匿战争则是罗马以强凌弱的侵略战争。
The first punic wars(264—241BC)；The second punic wars(218—201BC) The centurt of the civil wars(133—30BC) 3. The Roman Revolution罗马革命(133-27 B.C.)
* In the process of conquest, certain military dynasts became so powerful and ambitious that the republican constitution was destroyed in the Roman revolution. This revolution, a long battle among several warlords, killed whatever elements of political freedom existed in the Republic and established an even more powerful autocracy, the Roman Empire.在征战的过程中，该王朝是如此的强大和野心勃勃，以致共和宪法在罗马革命中被毁。这场革命是七个军阀的长年混战，杀绝了共和国里所有的政治自由，并建立了一个更加强大专制的罗马帝国。 * The changing world of Italy;意大利世界的变化 * Tiberius and Gaius Gracchus;台比留（公元1世纪14-37年间为罗马皇帝）和盖阿斯（罗马法学家？）
* Marius, the first warlord;马略盖厄斯，第一个军阀：(155?-86 ) 罗马将军和政治家，七次被选为执政官，他改革了军队，但在与其政治对手苏拉的内战中遭到惨败
* Sulla ;苏拉(138-78 ) 罗马统帅和独裁者（82-79年），他率领军队进入罗马城，从他的对手玛略手中夺取了政权（88年）
* Pompey; 庞培：古罗马将军和政治领导人。他和凯撒和克拉苏一起组成了三人寡头统治(60-50年)，但后来被凯撒击败并在埃及被谋杀
* (Cicero); 西塞罗，前 106-前43年, 古罗马政治家、雄辩家、著作家 * The First Triumvirate(Pompey, Caesar,Crassis);第一个三人寡头政治 * Caesar: the Gallic War; Caesar's invasion of Italy; Caesar's Rule; Caesar's death恺撒：高卢战争，恺撒入侵意大利，恺撒之死
* The break between Caesar and the Senate in 49 B.C.;公元前49年恺撒和元老院关系的破裂
* Caesar’s invasion of Italy;恺撒入侵意大利；Caesar’s Rule to 44 B.C.;公元前44年恺撒的统治；The death of Caesar.恺撒之死；Julius Caesar朱利叶斯－恺撒。 4. The end of the Roman Republic罗马共和国的结束
The second triumvirate(Octavian, Antony, Lepidus).第二个三人寡头政治：屋大维(即Augustus奥古斯特)，安东尼，李必达
Literature in the Age of Revolution革命时代的文学
* Lucretius (99-55 BC): a philosophical poet, famous for his philosophical epic On the Nature of the Universe – a comprehensive exposition of the Epicurean world. 卢克莱修：前99-前55, 罗马哲学家、诗人，以他的哲学史诗《在宇宙的本质上》称著，其中全面阐述了伊壁斯鸠的世界
* Catullus (about 84-54 BC): a lyric poet, famous for his Lesbis poems (Catullus called his lover Clodia Lesbia to recall Sappho of Lesbos) 卡塔路斯：(84?-54? ) 古罗马抒情诗人，以其写给“丽斯比雅”的爱情诗而闻名，丽斯比雅是古罗马的贵妇，真名为克洛狄亚
* Cicero (106-43 BC): a prose writer, whose polished prose style became the model for clarity and elegance.西塞罗：散文家，促使散文形成简洁明了的风格。 “These studies are an impetus to youth, and a delight to age; they are an adornment to good fortune, refuge and relief in trouble; they enrich private and do not hamper public life; they are with us by night, they are with us on long journeys, they are with us in the depths of the country.” 这些研究是年轻人的一种动力，是韶华的一种欢乐。它们是好运的装饰品，是麻烦的避难所和救助所。它们丰富私人生活但并不妨碍公共生活。无论在黑夜里，在长途旅程中，在最恶劣的地方（？），它们都伴随着我们。 * Compare: “Studies serve for delight, for ornament, and for ability.” (Of Studies by Bacon) 比较：“研究是为了欢乐，为了装饰，为了获得能力。”（培根）
基督教Christianity：The triumph of Christianity within the Roman Empire represents one of the most remarkable cultural revolutions in History;基督教在罗马帝国的胜利，是历史上最显著的文化革命之一。The values it preached were opposed to those of classical thought: one taught that good life must be sought in the present world, the other taught that the visible world was a place of exile, a vale of tears, through which we must pass, as we hurry toward our homeland in heaven.它鼓吹的价值观和古典思想相反：后者认为美好的生活必须在现世寻求，而前者则认为眼前的世界是个流放地，眼泪谷，不过是我们想急切通往美好天国的必经之地。
The Jews犹太人：Under the rule of the Persian Empire;受波斯帝国的统治Under the rule of the Greek and Macedonian in the Hellenistic Age;在希腊化时代受希腊和马其顿的统治Under the rule of the Roman Empire.受罗马帝国的统治The Jews never stopped fighting against its oppressors.犹太人从未停止过抗争压迫者Judaism retained its coherence and
strength, and it assured its people that God would one day send them their redeemer. 犹太教保持连贯性和力量，使人们相信有一天上帝会派救世主来
The sects宗教派别：The plight of the Jews under Roman rule raised religious tensions among them; numerous sects appeared, each advancing its own interpretation of the common Jewish
traditions: among them:犹太人在罗马统治下处境困难，唤起宗教紧张。许多宗教派别纷纷出现，对传统犹太教作出各自的解释。在它们中：1. Sadducees, advocating strict adherence to Jewish law, but rejected belief in an afterlife; 撒都该人，主张严格遵守犹太教法，但拒绝信仰来世2. Pharisees: more liberal, believing in a life after death, accepting gentile converts, willing to make some modifications of Jewish law to allow some accommodation with Greco-Roman culture;法利赛，更自由一些，相信来世，接纳异教徒入教，希望犹太法作些修改，允许希腊罗马文化融入。3. The Essenes: forming an ascetic community that sought isolation from the world. Jesus seemed to be baptized by this sect although no strong evidence prove it.艾赛尼：形成一个苦修派别，寻求与俗世的隔绝。耶稣似乎受到此派的熏陶，虽然并没有强有力的证据可以证明这点。
Paul and His Mission保罗和他的使命：Christians initially formed only one of the many sects within the larger body of Judaism;基督教只是庞大的犹太教中众多派别的一种。Jesus left nothing written, many of the religious notions were not clarified;耶稣没有留下任何著述，许多宗教概念模糊不清。The man who clarified those issues, reformed
Christianity into a distinct and autonomous religion, and infused it with burning missionary fervor was a Jew called Paul. Paul was the best known of all the early Christian teachers.有一个人澄清了这些问题，把基督教改革成一个独特而自主的宗教。那个人就是自始至终激情彭湃的犹太人保罗。保罗是早期基督教最著名的宣传家。Paul’s journey to Rome保罗奔赴罗马
The persecution of Christians 基督教徒受破害
The conversion of Constantine君士坦丁的转变：The Emperor Constantine was the first Roman ruler to accept the Christian faith. After seeing a cross of light in the sky, he sent his army into battle with the Chi-Ro sign on their shields. He won the battle and later became a Christian.君士坦丁皇帝是是第一个接受基督信仰的罗马皇帝。在天空中看到十字形状的光之后，他要求军队的盾配上耶稣图案。他赢得了那场战争，随后成为基督教徒。
The adoption of the Bible《圣经》的使用：Christianity drew decisive benefits from its close associations with the long Judaic tradition and its imposing body of sacred writings. In particular, Christians claimed that passages in the Old Testament actually foretold the coming of Jesus. 从相近的宗派里基督教提取了具有悠久犹太传统的决定性优点，以及神圣华丽的部分。基督教徒特别要求《旧约》能够预言耶稣的到来。
The Roman Imperial Civilization;罗马帝国文明：The Romans’ competence in the fields of engineering and construction was remarkable.罗马人在工程和建筑领域的能力可圈可点。Roads : the impressive令人印象深刻的 network of roads joint接合处 everywhere from Britain不列颠 to Africa 非洲.Aqueducts 导水管,Public baths ,Architecture建筑 : Corinthian capital 科林斯式柱头(柱顶板上有一行行重叠的涡旋形叶板,在下的叶板呈凹弧形) Triumphal arch 凯旋门,Pantheon (古希腊、罗马供奉众神的)万神殿(罗马一圆顶庙宇,建于公元120-124) Roman poets:1.Virgil:Virgil borrowed from Greek models. His early poems are fine hymns of praise to the Italian landscape, which reflect the style of Hesiod. But the gentle, human spirit of Virgil himself is always present in these works. His works echoes with graceful melancholy. These qualities are fully shown in his epic,Aeneid.In this epic,
Virgil narrates the wanderings of Aeneas,the Trojan who was the legendary founder of Rome. His aim was to sing the glory of Rome and its salvation by Augustus. Even in antiquity, poets recognized that he used the epic tradition in a way that no other Latin
Writer could challenge.2.Horace: His odes and satires examine love,amusement,annoyance,contentment---in short, the feelings of everyday life. He also makes an attempt at serious patriotic verse, but these poems are self—conscious and moralizing and do not speak with the real Horatian voice of gentle and amusing irony.3.Ovid:Ovid was the most polished poet of love. His most known work is The Art of Love, a witty discourse on how to find and keep mistresses and lovers. he late medieval romances, including many studies of courtly love, draw largely on Ovid. Ovid is a representative of the Roman Empire:elegant,highly civilized, and
accomplished. He does not have the elemental power of Homer; but he is a poet of wit,rhetoric,and learning.
Cultural disintegration罗马帝国文化瓦解：The cultural system had some crucial weakness.It identified fulfillment with the cultivation and perfection of every human power,physical or athletic,literary,intellectual,artist,or aesthetic.It spoke to the privileged and the gifted,the elite of ancient world.It even failed to develop a technology that might have eased the labors of the slaves and the poor.The intellectual leaders could point out little meaning in the lives of the unfree,the unhealthy,the disadvantaged,those without property,and those without talents.During the last centuries of the Empire,pagan thinkers were clearly losing their creative power,they could no longer guide or inspire.After the Augustan Age,Roman civilization produced fewer original thinkers.Writings and poems conformed to the Christian spirit that life on earth offered nothing,challenged no one.With the feeling that every earthly limit had been reached,both pagans and Christians were psychologically incapable of proposing and leading major social reforms.The pagans could see no destiny for humankind beyond the present life and they abandoned the platform of society to Christians;Christian
affirmed that a further and unfulfilled destiny awaited men and women but they could only achieve it in life after death. The Civilization of Ancient Greece
the Aegean Sea is the Cradle of the civilization of ancient Greece. The ancient Greeks first developed their civilization on the island of Crete, and Knossos was the leading city of Crete. The Cretan civilization fell due to natural reasons, and then the city Mycenae, in northwest Peloponnesian, became the new center of Greek civilization and development. The Mycenaeans derived much of their culture from the Minoans, and made new achievements in economy, culture, manufacturing technologies and other fields. The famous Trojan War broke out during late this period. After the Trojan War, the Mycenaean Civilization began to fall.
During the late 3rd century B.C., Greece was conquered by Macedonians. Alexander promoted the economic and cultural exchanges between the east and the west, and the civilization of ancient Greece stepped into the Hellenistic Age, during which the Greek Civilization was strengthened. As a civilized country, the ancient Greece is considered as the origin of the European Civilization that thrived afterwards.
The Roman Civilization originated around the area where the Tiber River in central Italy, joins in the ocean. It is said that the city Rome was built in 753 B.C.. Rome was firstly dominated by kings and in 509 BC the Romans found the Roman Republic. During the early 30s of the 1st century, Octavian founded the Roman Empire. In the late 4th century, the Roman Empire was divided into two parts, the East and the West. The West collapsed in the late 5th century, and the Western Europe entered the Middle Ages, while the East survived as the Byzantine Empire.
The ancient Romans achieved a lot in agriculture, Mathematics, physics, astronomy, medicine and many other fields. They left us with many splendid heritage or relics in literature, historiography, sculptures, paintings and architectures, including roads, aqueducts, squares, temples, the Arch of Titus, monuments, public baths and so on. Many great works of art of ancient Greece become famous to the world because of the copy of Romans.