gconsideremotionallaboranumbrellatermforanintegratedprocessrepresentedbyjobemotionalrequirements(environmentalstimulus),emotionregulation(intrapsychicresponse),andemotionperformance(interpersonalbehavior).AsshowninthehourglassportionofFigure1,thesethreelensestogether(i.e.,usingtrifocals;Grandeyetal.2013b)illustratethedynamicandreciprocalemotionallaborprocess.
Insupportofanintegratedview,thethreecomponentsarerelatedinexpectedways.Atthetophalfofthehourglass(seeFigure1),jobemotionalrequirementsarepositivelyrelatedtotheex-tentandtypeofemotionregulation.Specifically,“showingpositiveemotion”requirementsarestronglylinkedtodeepacting,and“hidingnegativeemotion”requirementsarestronglylinkedtosurfaceacting(Diefendorffetal.2011,Kammeyer-Muelleretal.2013).Glomb&Tews(2004)showedthatjobsinvolvingcaretakinginvolvedfrequentexpressingandfakingofpositiveemotions,whereaspolicinginvolvedsuchpositivefakingaswellasmoreexpressingandfakingofnegativeemotions.Asanewerexploration,Trougakosandcolleagues(2011)heldconstantthejob(i.e.,polltakersoncampus)andmanipulatedpositiveandneutraldisplayrequirements.Comparedtopositiverequirements,neutralemotionalrequirementselicitedmoresurfaceacting(i.e.,.ylnsuppression).
o eEmotionalrequirementsalsoinfluenceobservableemotionalperformance(Diefendorff&su lRichard2003,Gosserand&Diefendorff2005,Trougakosetal.2011)beyondemotionregulationanos(Mesmer-Magnusetal.2012).Emotionalrequirementsmayinfluenceemotionalexpressionsbyrepunconsciousregulation,bydifferentemotionregulationstrategiesthanaretypicallymeasured,orr oFbyencouraginggenuineexpressions(Ashforth&Humphrey1993,Diefendorffetal.2005). .51Movingtothebottomhalfofthehourglass,wefindthatemotionregulationintheformofdeep/81actingispositivelyrelatedtoemotionalperformance,beyondemotionalrequirementsandtraits,/04 whereassurfaceacting’srelationshipisweakeracrossstudies(Hülsheger&Schewe2011,no 4Kammeyer-Muelleretal.2013).Notably,meta-analysesoflab-basedstudiessupporttheopposite61.conclusion:Expressivesuppression(surfaceacting)isactuallymoreeffectiveatchangingobserved69.3displaysthanreappraisalis(deepacting)(Webbetal.2012).Thiscouldbeinlargepartduetothe52.measurementartifactsofemotionallabormentionedabove(i.e.,deepactingitemsconfounded69 ywithmotivation)ortothefactthatlabstudiesmanipulatewithinstructionsratherthanobtainself-b dratingsofregulation.Also,intheworkcontext,surfaceacting’seffectonemotionalperformanceedivdependsonthemotivationandskillsoftheactorandperceiver(Chietal.2011,Grothetal.2009).orpFinally,weacknowledgethatthisprocessisnotunidirectional;therearelikelyfeedbackloops sseandcyclesaswell[seeJamesGross’s(2015)forthcomingadvancementofhistheoryinPsycho-ccAlogicalInquiry].Similarly,anemployee’semotionperformancefeedsbacktotheemployeeto informsubsequentemotionregulationneededandreinforcetheawarenessofemotionalrequirements.Emotionperformancealsoinfluencestheperceiver’s(i.e.,acustomer’s)emotions,withtheperceiver’sreactionsalsoinfluencingemployee’semotionregulation(Diefendorff&Gosserand2003).
FutureDirections:CautionwithConstructbutRiskTakingwithMeasurement
Inthepastdecade,emotionallaborhastendedtobeequatedwithsurfaceanddeepacting,withnewworkapplyingthoseconceptstointerpersonalcontextsbeyondcustomerservice.Weseesomeneedforcareinthisapproachandencourageinnovationinotherapproaches.
Cautionwithconstructboundaries.Emotionallaborwasoriginallydefinedasemotionregula-tionforthegoalofpubliclyobservableexpressionsinapaidexchange,prototypicallywithcus-tomers.Today,emotionallaborisbeingstudiedassurfaceanddeepactingwithcoworkers
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Annu. Rev. Organ. Psychol. Organ. Behav. 2015.2:323-349. Downloaded from www.annualreviews.org(Ozcelik2013)andleaders(Ashkanasy&Humphrey2011,Gardneretal.2009),andevenwithmaritalpartners(Yanchusetal.2010).Towhatextentdothemaindistinctionsandassumptionsofemotionallaborchangewhenwemoveawayfromthelaborrequiredoflow-statusserviceproviderswithone-timecustomerstomoreintimate/equal-statusrelationshipsorhigher-statusactorswithmoreresources(Diefendorffetal.2010,Tschanetal.2005)?Emotionregulationiscertainlydoneinmanyworkexchanges,butforemotionallabortobeauniqueconstructnonredundantwithemotionregulation,doesthereneedtobesomeofthedefiningfeaturesidentifiedbyHochschild(Grandeyetal.2013b)?Moreover,studyingemotionallaborwithin-ternalmembersoftheorganizationstartstooverlapwithotherOB/OPtopics,suchasorgani-zationalcitizenshipbehavior(OCB)andimpressionmanagement.Onegoodnextstepwouldbetodemonstratebothhowemotionallaborwithorganizationalmembersisconceptuallydistinctor.ylno esu lanosrepr oF .51/81/04 no 461.69.352.69 yb dedivorp sseccA relatedtotheseexistinginterpersonalbehaviorsandtheincrementalvalidityofthenewerconceptofemotionallabor.
Measureattheappropriatelevelofanalysis.Emotionalrequirementsandemotionregulationtendtobemeasuredatthepersonlevel,butthismaynotbeappropriatebecauseconceptuallytheseconceptsvarybyworkcontext(i.e.,ahigherlevelofanalysis)andmoods/emotionalevents(i.e.,alowerlevelofanalysis),respectively(Beal&Trougakos2013,Groth&Grandey2012).Consistentwiththisnotion,perceivedandobjectivelymeasuredemotionalrequirementshavebeenshowntovarybytheemployee’ssupervisor(Wilk&Moynihan2005),workgroup(Diefendorffetal.2011),andoccupation(Bhave&Glomb2015).Thus,one’sformalandinfor-malworkenvironmentclearlydoesinfluencetheemotionalrequirements,andtreatingemployeeswithsharedsocialcontextsasindependentdatapointsmaynotbeappropriate.
Similarly,researchwithexperiencesamplingmethod(ESM)showsthatsurfaceanddeepactinghavesignificantvariationswithinasingleday(Judgeetal.2009,Scott&Barnes2011,Totterdell&Holman2003),thusmorecloselycapturingthemomentarychangesinemotionregulationbymoods.Yet,dailyESMstilldependsonretrospectivememoryforuseofemotionregulation(whichmaynotalwaysbeinconsciousawareness)andmaybeimpairedbyrecallandbiases.Anexcitingnewwithin-personapproachisonlinemomentaryassessmentsoffeltmoods,surfaceacting,anddeepacting(Gabriel&Diefendorff2015).Inthislineofwork,participantswereaskedtoprovidecontinuousratings(i.e.,recordedevery200ms)oftheirfeltemotionsandemotionregulation(i.e.,surfaceacting,deepacting)astheylistenedtoarecordingofadifficultinteractiontheyjusthadwithacustomer(confederate)callerduringasimulation.AsillustratedinFigure2,surfaceanddeepactingwerefoundtochangecontinuously,witheachpersonhavingauniquetrajectorythatebbedandflowedinresponsetoemotionaleventsandfeltemotions.Bycontrast,theaggregateofthecontinuousratingassessments(shownontherightofFigure2),whichmimicsretrospectivemeasuresasdonewithESMorotherperson-levelapproaches,neglectstheactualemotionallaborprocessasitunfoldsduringaperformanceepisode(e.g.,Beal&Trougakos2013).CombinedwithESMapproaches,thisworkillustratesthatthereismuchinsighttobegainedfrommicro-levelassessmentsofemotionallabor.
Overall,themismatchinconceptandmeasurementmayexplainwhyrelationshipsfoundfor(person-level)surfaceactinganddeepacting(Hülsheger&Schewe2011)aresometimescon-tradictorywithexperimental(event/emotion-level)evidence(Webbetal.2012).Accuratelyaligningmeasurementwiththecorrespondingemotionallaborconceptualizationwillhelpminimizebiasesthatmayotherwiseexplainrelationshipswithemployeeoutcomes.
Expandbeyondmeasuresofsurfaceanddeepacting.Asnotedabove,themeasuresforsurfaceanddeepactinghaveconfoundingandartifactualissuesthatconstraininterpretationoffindings
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20181614Felt emotionsSurface actingDeep acting Retrospectiveemotionregulation
Participant rating121086420M = 9.63M = 9.26M = 8.06Annu. Rev. Organ. Psychol. Organ. Behav. 2015.2:323-349. Downloaded from www.annualreviews.org Access provided by 96.253.96.164 on 04/18/15. For personal use only.04812162024283236404448525660646872768084889296100Standardized time (s)Exposure tocustomer incivility
Figure2
Newmomentaryandcontinuousmeasurementofemotionregulationcomparedwith(traditional)retrospectivemeasurement.Ratingswerecapturedevery200msandaggregatedtoform1-saverages.Datarepresentasubsetofparticipants(n?19)fromGabriel&Diefendorff(2015)whowereexposedtoincreasinglevelsofcustomerhostilityasthecallprogressed.
Increased exposure tocustomer incivility
(i.e.,surfaceactingmeasurescapturenegativemoodandbothamplificationandsuppression;deepactingisconfoundedwithmotivation;itisunclearwhatlowsurfaceanddeepactingreflect).Moreover,mostemotionregulationresearchmeasuressurfaceanddeepactingastwoin-dependentvariables,buttheymaynotbe.Anewindividualdifferenceisemotionallaborvari-ability(Scottetal.2012),orhowmuchapersonvariesinusingsurfaceanddeepactingovertime,whichpredictedoutcomesbeyondeitherregulationstrategyalone.Anotherapproachisemotionregulationprofiles(Gabrieletal.2015b),withtheresearchersidentifyingfiveuniquegroupsbasedonsurfaceanddeepactingusage(e.g.,“regulators”havehighlevelsofbothsurfaceactinganddeepacting).Notably,alloftheseapproachesassumethatemotionregulationisconsciouslyperformed.However,emotionregulation(particularlycognitiveregulation,knownasdeepacting)maybecomeautomaticandthuseasierfortheactor(Maussetal.2007).Futureresearchersmaybeabletoshowthiswithlongitudinalmethods(i.e.,studyingnewemployeesandtheirregulatorytendenciesovertime)orinnovativeimplicitmeasuresofemotionregulation(Moon&Lord2006).
Finally,otheremotionallaborapproachesmoveawayfromthetraditionalsurfaceanddeepacting.Forexample,oneapproachmeasuresspecificformsofemotionregulationassuggestedbyGross’s(1998)framework(Diefendorffetal.2008).Anotherapproachgroupsexpressivereg-ulationwithotherstrategiestoregulatetheemotionsofothersratherthanone’sownemotions
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(i.e.,interpersonalemotionregulation;Nivenetal.2009).Athirdexamineshowemotionreg-ulationisdoneviacomputer-mediatedtechnology,suchasemail,chat,andtext,tocommunicatewithcustomers(Byron2008).
DETERMINANTSOFEMOTIONALLABOR:PERSONANDEMOTIONCONGRUENCE
Wenowshifttopredictorsofemotionallabor(leftsideofFigure1).Wedescribetwotheoreticalperspectives:person–jobcongruence(i.e.,thepersonmatchestheemotionalrequirements)andemotion–goalcongruence(i.e.,emotions/eventsmatchtheemotionalrequirements).
g.ylno esu lanosrepr oF .51/81/04 no 461.69.352.69 yb dedivorp sseccA Person–JobCongruence:EmotionalTraits,Motives,andAbilities
Giventhatmostjobstendtoexpectpositiveandprosocialinteractions(Diefendorffetal.2006),traits,motives,andabilitiescongruentwithpositiveemotionalrequirementstendtopredictemotionregulationandperformance(cf.Dahling&Johnson2013).
Personalitytraits.Personalitytraitsmaybecongruentwiththeemotionalrequirements,suchthatthetraitsareconducivewiththeemotionalperformanceexpected.Traitsthatarecongruentwiththepositiverequirementsofservicejobs(i.e.,extraversion,agreeableness)tendtobelinkedtoperceptionsofpositiveemotionalrequirements,suggestingeitherself-selectionorself-confirmingbiases(Diefendorff&Richard2003,Kammeyer-Muelleretal.2013).Onceonthejob,extra-versionandself-monitoring(i.e.,sensitivitytosocialcuesandwillingnesstochangetheselftomatchsuchcues)eachpredictbothformsofactingandemotionalperformance,regardlessoftheemotionalrequirementsortargetoftheemotionalregulation(Mesmer-Magnusetal.2012,Ozcelik2013).
Othertraitspredictspecifictypesofemotionregulationthatarecongruentwithemployees’personaltendencies.Individualswhoarehigherinagreeablenessandtraitpositiveaffectivitytendtoengageinprosocialbehaviorsofdeepactingandshowinggenuinedisplays(Diefendorffetal.2005,Kammeyer-Muelleretal.2013).Asexpectedbyperson–jobcongruence,therelationshipofpositiveaffectivityanddeepactingisstrengthenedwhenapersonisworkinginagroupwithhigherpositiveemotionalrequirements(Diefendorffetal.2011).Bycontrast,surfaceactingismorelikelyfromthosewiththepersonalitytendencytofeelnegative(i.e.,negativeaffectivity)andtobemoodyandcynical(i.e.,neuroticism)(Kammeyer-Muelleretal.2013),andthislinkisstrengthenedbypositiveemotionalrequirementsorperson–jobincongruence(Diefendorffetal.2011).Suchnegativepersonalitiesshouldbeagoodfitinjobswithnegativeemotionalrequirements(i.e.,billcollectors).However,onlyoneknownstudyhastestedthis:Bono&Vey(2007)manipulatedpositiveandnegativedisplayrequirementsandfoundthatextravertswerelessdistressedfrompositivedisplayrules,consistentwithafitperspective,butneuroticindividualswerenotbetteroffinthenegativerequirementsandfeltstressregardless.
Workmotives.Beyondpersonalitytraits,thecongruencebetweenemployees’motivesislinkedtowhichformofemotionregulationisused.Employeeswhohaveastrongprosocialorcustomerorientation(i.e.,apropensitytowanttogiveoutstandingcustomerservice)aremorelikelytousedeepactinginresponsetoemotionalrequirements(Allenetal.2010,Gabrieletal.2015b,Maneotisetal.2014).Surfaceactingismorelikelyfromthosewhodonotsharetheoverallworkgoalsoftheorganization(Ozcelik2013),consistentwithitbeingabadfaithapproachtoemotionallabor(Ashforth&Humphrey1993).However,employeeswhoweremorecommitted
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Employeesalsovaryintheirmotivesforemotionregulationatwork,suchastoobtainsocialorfinancialrewards,tomakeothersfeelbetter,and/ortoconformtoprofessionalnorms(Adelmann1995,Bolton&Boyd2003).InarecentESMstudy,VonGilsaandcolleagues(2014)foundthreemaintypesofdailymotives:pleasure(toimproveself,relationship),prevention(topreventproblems,arguments),andinstrumental(toconformtorequirements).Thepleasuremotiveswerelinkedtomoredeepactingandgenuineexpressionbutlesssurfaceacting;dayswithgreaterpreventionandinstrumentalmotivescovariedwithsurfaceacting(VonGilsaetal.2014).Finally,Dahling&Johnson(2010)appliedregulatoryfocustheory(Brockner&Higgins2001),showingthatpromotion-andprevention-regulatorymotivesarelinkedtodeepandsurfaceacting,re-spectively,suggestinganewtheoreticalbasisforunderstandingemotionallabor.
Emotionallaborabilities.Therearetwomainapproachestoemotionallaborability:emotionalintelligence(EI)andemotionalself-efficacy.Congruencebetweenjob-basedemotionalrequire-.ylnmentsandEIpredictsjobperformance(Joseph&Newman2010).Acrossstudies,EI(oftenself-o ereportortraitmeasures)ispositivelyrelatedwithdeepactingbutnegativelyrelatedwithsurfacesu lacting(Mesmer-Magnusetal.2012),suggestingthatthosewhotendtofeelmorepositivelyaboutanosthemselvestendtousethemoremotivatedapproachratherthanthemorecynicalapproach.repSimilarly,emotionalself-efficacy(Pughetal.2011)andpeer-ratedemotionalcompetencer oF(Giardini&Frese2006)seemtohelpemployeeseffectivelyengageinemotionallabor.Anew .51approachinemotionallaborresearchistodirectlymeasuretheperceivedfitbetweenone’s/81emotionalabilitiesandemotionalrequirements(i.e.,emotionaldemands–abilityfit),whichwas/04 foundtobedistinctfromotherformsofperson–jobfitanduniquelypredictssupervisor-ratedno 4performance(Diefendorffetal.2015).
61.UsingobjectivemeasuresofEItellsasomewhatdifferentstory.Emotionregulationknowl-69.3edge,adimensionofEIthatcapturesawarenessofdisplayrulesandeffectivewaystoregulate52.acrossdifferentsituations,hasbeenlinkedtosurfaceanddeepactingatwork(Grant2013).This69 ysuggeststhatpeoplewhoareawareofeffectivewaystoregulateseevalueineitheremotionb dregulationapproach.Infact,emotionregulationknowledgepredictsbothprosocialanddeviantedivbehaviorsdependingonMachiavellianmotives(C?téetal.2011),andtheabilitytoperceiveorpothers’unintendedexpressions(“eavesdropping”)maycomewithcoststothesocialdynamics sse(Elfenbein&Ambady2002).AnothernewapproachinEIresearchistodirectlymeasuretheccAabilitytoenhanceorsuppressemotionalexpressionswheninstructedto;thisabilityseemstobe effectiveforinterpersonalfunctioning(Bonannoetal.2004,C?téetal.2010)andislikelytohelpatworkaswell.
Emotion–GoalCongruence:EmotionalEvents
Incontrasttothechronicstateofcongruencebetweenpersonalitytraitsandemotionalrequire-ments,wenowturntothemomentarycongruencebetweenemotionaleventsatworkandemo-tionalrequirements.Tounderstandthesedynamicprocesses,researchershaveusedcontroltheoryprinciples,whicharguethathumanbehaviorisguidedbyattemptingtominimizediscrepanciesbetweencurrentstates(e.g.,negativefeelings,expressions)andsituationalgoals(e.g.,toconformtoemotionalrequirements,tohavesatisfiedcustomers)(Diefendorff&Gosserand2003).Ifadiscrepancyisdetectedbyanemployeebetweenhis/herfeltemotionsanddisplayrules(i.e.,emotion-goalincongruence),emotionregulationcanbeusedtobringfeltemotionsandemotionalrequirementsinline.
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