gThestandardwaythatemotionaleventsarestudiedinemotionallaboristhroughinteractionwithhostileorrudecustomers,whichtypicallyevokesadiscrepancybetweenone’semotionsandemotionalrequirements.Person-levelsurveystudieshavesupportedthatemployeeswhoperceiveinjusticeormistreatmentbycustomerstendtousesurfaceactingbutnotnecessarilydeepacting(Grandeyetal.2004,Ruppetal.2008,Sliteretal.2010).Laboratoryexperimentswithcallcentersimulationshavealsoshownthatexposure(directorobserved)toahostilecustomerinducesnegativeemotionsandelicitsmoresurfaceanddeepactingtoreducethediscrepancywiththeinterpersonalgoals(Goldberg&Grandey2007,Rupp&Spencer2006,Spencer&Rupp2009).
Moredirectlytestingthediscrepancy-reductionpredictionsaboutemotionallaborrequiresawithin-person(orevenawithin-episode)researchapproach(Diefendorff&Gosserand2003).In.ylno esu lanosrepr oF .51/81/04 no 461.69.352.69 yb dedivorp sseccA oneESMstudy,ondayswhencustomerswerelesspleasant,employeesreportedmoresurfaceacting(faking),butlessdeepacting(perspectivetakingandpositiverefocusing)(Totterdell&Holman2003).Thissuggeststhatsurfaceactingaddressesthedisplaygoal,buthigher-ordergoals(i.e.,personalvalues,workmotivation)maydeterminedeepacting.Recently,discrepancy-reductionpredictionsweretestedwithmomentaryfluctuationsinfeltemotionsandemotionregulation(Gabriel&Diefendorff2015).Manipulatedemotionalevents(i.e.,customerincivility)immediatelyreducedpositivemood(discrepancycreation),whichcorrespondedwithasharpriseinsurfaceactingandaslowerriseindeepacting(discrepancy-reductioneffort;seeFigure2).Surfaceactingimmediatelyconformstothegoal,butdeepactingmayhelpreducethedissonance.Moreover,bothformsofemotionregulationseemedtostabilizefeltmood(seeFigure2)andobserver-ratedemotionalexpressionsinthevoice(notshown).
FutureDirections:ExpandtheEmotionalLaborAntecedents
Person-leveltraitsandevent-levelmistreatmentbycustomersarethemostcommonlystudiedantecedentsofemotionallabor,mostlyincallcenters.Expansiontootherantecedentsisneeded.Includeemotionaspartofadynamicprocess.Peremotionregulationtheory(Grandey2000,Gross1998),deepactingshouldbeadeterminantoffeltemotionandsurfaceactingaresponsetofeltemotion.However,emotionsareoftennotincludedinemotionallaborresearch,andnotinthistheoreticalway.Someresearchersputemotionasanantecedentofbothformsofemotionreg-ulation(Rupp&Spencer2006,Totterdell&Holman2003),whereasothersincludeemotionasanoutcomeofboth(Judgeetal.2009,Wagneretal.2014).Thediscrepancy-reductionmodelofemotionallabor(Diefendorff&Gosserand2003)suggeststhatemotion–goaldiscrepanciespredicttheuseofemotionregulation,butalsothattheregulationchangestheemotionandexpression.Moreattentiontothereciprocalandunfoldingemotion–emotionallaborprocessisneededthroughmomentaryassessments(Gabriel&Diefendorff2015)orlaggedeffects(i.e.,predictingemotionregulationatTwithmoodatT-1,controllingforpreviousregulationatT-1).Testcongruenceideasmorecompletely.Boththeperson–jobcongruenceandemotion–goaldiscrepancyapproacheshavetestedonlyhalfthestory:negativeeventsincongruentwithpositiveemotionalrequirements.Onlyafewlaboratorystudieshavedirectlycomparednegativeorneutralemotionalrequirementsandtestedtheeffectonemotionallaborandworkoutcomes.Bono&Vey(2007)manipulatedthejobtobeeitheratourguide(positiverequirements)orbillcollector(negativerequirements)anddidnotfindcongruenceeffectswithtraitsonemotionregulation.Ausefulfutureapproachwouldbetostudycontextswherenegativeexpressionsarenormap-propriate(e.g.,negotiating,sportscoaching,armycadettraining)andfunctional(Syetal.2005,
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Annu. Rev. Organ. Psychol. Organ. Behav. 2015.2:323-349. Downloaded from www.annualreviews.orgVanKleefetal.2010).Insuchcontexts,dorequirement-congruentnegativemoodsandeventshelptheemotionalperformanceandpersonaloutcomes,oraretheyalwaysproblematicfortheactor?Inaddition,attentionshouldbepaidtopositiveeventsandmoodsatworkandhowtheymotivate—orreducetheneedfor—emotionregulation.Positiveevents,suchascustomers’prosocialbehaviorstowardemployees,arerarelystudied,butnewscalesandevidenceareemergingshowingthatsome—butnotall—ofsuchbehaviorselicitpositivemoodandlowerjobstress(Maneotis2014,Zimmermannetal.2011).Wouldpositivecustomerbehaviorsreducesurfaceacting(byimprovingmood)butincreasedeepacting(byenhancingmotivation),orreduceboth?Finally,emotionaleventsaretypicallyfocusedonthecustomer(performance-goaloriented),buteventswithcoworkers,leaders,andevenfamilymemberscanaffectmoodsandtheneedforandmotivationtouseemotionregulationstrategies.
Explorecongruencebetweensocialgroupsandjobs.Socialgroups(i.e.,gender,race,nation)maybeexpectedtoshowcertainemotionsthatareincongruentwithjobrequirementsandthusinducetheneedforemotionregulation.Inemotionallaborcontexts,positiveemotionalrequirementsare.ylnmorecongruentwithsocialnormsforwomenthanmen(Hochschild1983),butevidenceforo egenderdifferencesinemotionallaborfrequencyaremixed(e.g.,Johnson&Spector2007,Scott&su lBarnes2011).Youngeremployeesseemtohavetofakeitmorethanolderemployeestomanageanosimpressionsoftheirskillsandmotivation(Dahling&Perez2010);thiseffectisamplifiedwhenrepemployeesareworkinginhighlyage-diversegroups(Kimetal.2013).Racialgroupmembershipr oFalsoseemstopredictsurfaceactingwithcustomers(Grandey&Houston2013)andwith .51workgroups:Moresurfaceactingwasusedbyracialminoritymemberswhentheywerethe/81/“token”memberoftheirgroup(i.e.,potentiallytooverridestereotypes),whereasmajoritygroup04 members(White)usedsurfaceactingwhenracialdiversitywashigh(i.e.,potentiallytoavoidno 4seemingprejudiced)(Kimetal.2013,p.632).
61.Nationalculturehasreceivedrelativelymoreattentionthanrace/ethnicityandiscertainly69.3criticalintheglobaleconomy.Culturallybaseddifferencesinperceptionsofemotionalrequire-52.ments(i.e.,displayrules)reflectdifferencesbetweenmorecollectivisticandindividualisticcoun-69 ytries,suchasbeingmoreacceptingofexpressingnegativeemotionswithcoworkersintheUnitedb dStatesthaninSingapore,butsuppressingnegativeemotionswithcustomerswasastronglyheldedivnormthatvariedlittlebycountry(e.g.,Grandeyetal.2010,Moranetal.2013).Eveninmoreorpemotionallyexpressivecultures,thefrequencyofusingemotionregulationwithcustomersis sseconstantacrossnationalityofrespondent(Allenetal.2014,Grandeyetal.2005b);however,ccApositiveemotionalrequirementsweremorestronglylinkedtosurfaceactingforUSemployeesand todeepactingforChineseemployees(Allenetal.2014).Later,wediscussculturaldifferencesinoutcomesfromperformingemotionallabor.Moreworkisneededoncongruencebetweensocialgroupsandemotionlabor.
EMOTIONALLABORASITRELATESTOEMPLOYEEANDORGANIZATIONALWELL-BEINGEmotionalLaborandEmployeeWell-Being
Thedominantperspectiveisthatemotionallaborisharmfultopersonalwell-being(Hochschild1983),butacontradictoryperspectivealsoexiststhatarguesemotionallaborcanbebeneficial(Ashforth&Humphrey1993,C?té2005).Totesttheseideas,themajorityofstudieshavefocusedonjobsatisfactionandjobburnoutasindicatorsofemployeewell-being.
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Annu. Rev. Organ. Psychol. Organ. Behav. 2015.2:323-349. Downloaded from www.annualreviews.orgTheevidenceforthesecontradictoryviewsisalsomixed,dependingontheemotionallaborcomponentandthespecificmeasureused.Forexample,employeesinjobscodedhighemotionalrequirements(O?NET)reportedhigherjobsatisfaction(Bhave&Glomb2015),butalsohigherjobburnout(Grandeyetal.2007).Group-levelpositiveemotionalrequirementsamonghealth-careworkerspredictedhigherburnoutbutlowerjobsatisfactionamongmembers(Diefendorffetal.2011).Individualperceptionsofpositiveemotionalrequirementsareunrelatedtostrainandweaklybutpositivelyrelatedtojobsatisfaction;however,perceivingtherequirementtosuppressnegativeemotionsconsistentlypredictjobdissatisfactionandstress/burnout(Kammeyer-Muelleretal.2013).Thus,havingahighemotionallaborjobdoesnotseemtohelporharmwell-beingconsistently.
Bycontrast,emotionallaborconceptualizedasemotionregulationshowssomewhatmore.ylno esu lanosrepr oF .51/81/04 no 461.69.352.69 yb dedivorp sseccA consistentpatternswithwell-being,suchthatsurfaceactingisproblematicanddeepactingismorebeneficial.Surfaceacting—measuredasindividualdifferencesacrossstudiesorwithin-personwithESM—isconsistentlypositivelyrelatedtojobburnoutandnegativelyrelatedtojobsatis-faction,whereasdeepactingisunrelatedtojobburnoutandweaklypositivelyrelatedtojobsatisfaction(Hülsheger&Schewe2011,Judgeetal.2009).Thesesameconclusionsremainwhennegativepersonalitytraitsarecontrolledfor(Kammeyer-Muelleretal.2013)andtime-separatedandcross-laggedmethodsareused(C?té&Morgan2002,Hülshegeretal.2010).
Tomakesenseoftheseinconsistentfindings,weorganizeourreviewbytwobroadmechanismsthathelpexplainwhyandwhenemotionallaborislinkedtopersonalwell-being:(a)dissonanceorinauthenticityand(b)resourcegains/losses(Hülsheger&Schewe2011).
Dissonanceorinauthenticitymechanism.Hochschild(1983)arguedthatemotionallaborrequiresonetobeincongruentwiththeself,aninherentlydetrimentalconditionforemployees.Sheappliedcognitivedissonancetheory(Festinger1957)toarguethatsuppressingoneselfinordertoexpressjob-requiredemotionscreatestensionoremotivedissonance.Overtime,Hochschildargued,ignoringone’sownfeelingscancreatealienationfromtheself,creatinghealthandre-lationalissues.
Positiveemotionalrequirementscanelicitdissonanceduetomistreatmentbycustomersorfatigue,buttheemployeecanreduceemotion–displayruledissonancebychangingattitudesandmoodstobeconsistentwiththeexpressionsexpected.Surfaceactingmaintainsdissonancebe-tweenexpressionandfeelings,butdeepactingattemptstobringmoodsandattitudesinlinewithemotionalrequirements.Infact,surfaceactingispositivelyrelatedtodissonance,whereasdeepactingisunrelatedtodissonanceandpositivelyrelatedtojobsatisfaction(Hülsheger&Schewe2011,Kammeyer-Muelleretal.2013).
Emotionallaborasincongruenceorself-suppression(e.g.,requirementstosuppressnegativeemotions,surfaceacting,dissonance,orinauthenticity)isrobustlypositivelyassociatedwithemployeeburnoutandjobdissatisfaction(Diefendorffetal.2006,Erickson&Wharton1997,Mesmer-Magnusetal.2012).Inaspecifictestofdissonancemechanisms,dailysurfaceactingwasrelatedtochangesinanxiety,indicatinginternaltension(Wagneretal.2014).Despitebenefitstojobattitudesandmoods,deepactingtendstobeweaklyrelatedtojobburnoutandphysicalsymptoms(Hülsheger&Schewe2011,Kammeyer-Muelleretal.2013,Mesmer-Magnusetal.2012).ThesefindingsfitwithHochschild’s(1983,p.33)argumentthatdeepacting“involvesdeceivingoneselfasmuchasdeceivingothers,”whichmayhavecostsdespiteimprovingmoodsandperformanceinthemoment.
Dissonance-basedmoderators.Thedissonancefromemotionallaborismostdistressingifactedbehaviorsviolateself-identityperceptions(Ashforth&Humphrey1993,Festinger1957).
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Annu. Rev. Organ. Psychol. Organ. Behav. 2015.2:323-349. Downloaded from www.annualreviews.orgEmployeeswhoarefullyidentifiedwiththeworkrole,andthushaveinternalizedtheor-ganizationalvalues/goals,arelesslikelytoexperiencehealthcostsfromemotionallabor(Schaubroeck&Jones2000,Wilk&Moynihan2005).Pughandcolleagues(2011)showedthatthedissonanceexperiencedwhilesurfaceactingwasparticularlydistressingforemployeeswhovalueauthenticity.Similarly,whensurfaceactingwasbehaviorallycongruentwithtraits(i.e.,extraverts)orvalues,itwaslessstressful(Judgeetal.2009);however,thiswasnotsupportedforneuroticism(Bono&Vey2007).Consistentwithidentityanddissonanceperspectives,womenweremoredistressedanddissatisfiedbyfakingdisplaysbecausebeinggenuinelywarmwithothersiscongruentwithgenderidentitynormsforwomen(Johnson&Spector2007,Scott&Barnes2011).Similarly,whensurfaceactingwasconsistentwithculturalvaluesforsocialharmony(i.e.,collectivisticcultures),itwaslessdistressingthanwhenperformedbythosewhohighlyvalueindividualexpression(Allenetal.2014).Finally,dissonantbehaviorwaslessself-relevant,andthuslessdistressing,ifthebehaviorwascoerced(i.e.,byfinancialrewards)ratherthanoptional(Festinger1957);similarly,financialincentivesbufferedthedissatisfactionfromsurfaceacting,butnotfromdeepacting(Grandeyetal.2013a).However,incontradictiontothis.ylnforcedchoiceassumptionofdissonancetheory,jobsatisfactiondidnotdependonwhethero eemployeesratedemotionalexpressionsasin-roleorasextra-rolerequirements(Diefendorffetal.su l2006),andhavingmorejobautonomybufferedthestrainfromsurfaceacting(Grandeyetal.anos2005b).
repr oFResourcegains/lossesmechanism.Adifferenttheoreticalapproachsuggeststhatemotionallabor .51usesupemployeeresources(i.e.,motivationalenergy)(Brotheridge&Lee2002)orenhances/81resourcesthatpredictwell-being(e.g.,money,socialsupport)(C?té2005).Themostconsistently/04 usedresource-basedtheoryisconservationofresources(COR)(Hobfoll1989).Withinthistheory,no 4emotionregulationstrategiesarewaysofcopingwithemotionalrequirementsandeventsin61.attemptstogain,conserve,orprotectresources.Ifemotionregulationiseffective,theremaybe69.3anetgaininresourcesandjobsatisfaction.Ifemotionregulationisineffective,aresourcelossspiral52.makesithardertorecoverorprotectresourcesandresultsinjobburnout.
69 yFromthisperspective,thepositiverelationshipofemotionalrequirementswithwell-beingb d(Bhave&Glomb2015,Wharton1993)derivesfromgainsinmotivationalresourcessuchasedivtasksignificanceandfeedbackfromclients(Grandey&Diamond2010).Notably,jobre-orpquirementstoexpressnegativeemotionsortojustbeneutralshouldnotresultinthesocialresource ssegainsthatnullifytheenergylosses,thusexplainingwhysuchformsofemotionallaboraremoreccAdistressing(Trougakosetal.2011).
Amplifyingpositiveemotionstoothersispositivelyrelatedtosubsequentjobsatisfaction,potentiallyduetopositivesocialfeedbackservingasaresource(C?té&Morgan2002).Thenullrelationshipofdeepactingwithjobstraincanbeconceptuallyexplainedbyemployeesexperi-encingbothenergylossesfromtheeffortandsocialgainsfromappearinggenuine(Brotheridge&Grandey2002),althoughthisrelation,toourknowledge,hasnotbeendirectlytestedinadynamicway.Moreover,theinauthenticityinherentinsurfaceactingislesslikelytoincreasesocialresources,suchthatthereisanetlossinresourcesovertime.Infact,surfaceactingisassociatedwiththedesiretowithdrawfromworkandactualturnover,bothofwhicharewaysofconservingresources(Chauetal.2009,Goodwinetal.2011).Overall,theresource-basedtheoreticalperspectivefitstheevidencefairlywell.
Resource-basedmoderators.Aresource-basedperspectivesuggeststhatemotionregulationwillbelessdepletinginaworkcontextinwhichtherearemoreresourcesavailable.Althoughthereareamultitudeofpossibleresourcesforemployeestocapitalizeon,researchershavefocusedontwo
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Annu. Rev. Organ. Psychol. Organ. Behav. 2015.2:323-349. Downloaded from www.annualreviews.orgprimarytypesasmoderators:(a)formaljob-basedfinancialandpsychologicalresources(au-tonomy,money,status)and(b)informalsocialorenergyresources.
Theoriginalapproachtoemotionallaborwasfocusedonjobsforwhichtherewerefewmo-tivationalandfinancialresources(Hochschild1983).However,emotionallaborjobsvaryintheseresources(Glombetal.2004),whichmayexplainthemixedeffectsonburnoutandsatisfaction(Grandey&Diamond2010).Highemotionallaborjobsgreatlydifferwithrespecttotheirsocialimpactandfinancialcompensation(e.g.,educationandhealth-carejobsversuscustomerserviceandsalesjobs),whichpredictdifferencesinjobsatisfaction(Mesmer-Magnusetal.2012).Evenengaginginsurfaceactingcanbesatisfyingwhenmonetaryincentivesforemotionallaborareofferedtoemployees(Grandeyetal.2013a),althoughitisunclearwhetherjobburnoutisbufferedbyfinancialresources.
.ylno esu lanosrepr oF .51/81/04 no 461.69.352.69 yb dedivorp sseccA Socialrewardscanalsobeavaluableemployeeresourcethatbuffersthestrainfromemotionregulation(Leeetal.2010).Organizationalsupportperceptionsgaveasenseofvaluethatbufferedthedissatisfactionfromemotionregulationofretailworkers(Dukeetal.2009).Asociallysupportivecontextamongcoworkerscanalsoprovideaself-regulatorybreak,bufferingstrainbygivingemployeesachancetorecoverenergyresources.Inalaboratoryexperiment,socialsharingafteradifficultcustomerexchangereducedfeelingsofanger(McCanceetal.2013),andaclimateforauthenticityamonghospitalstaffreducedtheburnoutfromsurfaceactingwithpatients(Grandeyetal.2012).
Futuredirections:comparetheoriesandexpandbeyondjobstrain.Althoughagreatdealofworkhaslinkedemotionallaborprocesseswithwell-being,similartootherportionsofthisreview,growthisneeded.Inparticular,webelievefutureworkshouldincludecomparisonsoftheoreticalmechanismsandboundaryconditions,expandbeyondburnoutasindicationofwell-being,andevaluatehowemployeescangain(ratherthanlose)resources.
Comparetheoreticalmechanismsandboundaryconditions.Therearecontradictorytheoreticalviewsandevidenceastohowemotionallaboraffectswell-being.Overall,effectivelytestingthesocialinteractiontheory(C?té2005)orCORtheory(Hobfoll1989)requiresnotonlyepisodic,dynamicmethodology,butalsoconsiderationofreciprocaleffectsfromtheactorperformingemotionallaborontheperceiver’sresponse,asthesereciprocaleffectswillimpacttheactor’sstrainovertime.Withinsuchaframework,researchisneededthatdirectlycomparestheoreticalmech-anisms(i.e.,dissonance,resourcegains/losses)andmoderators(i.e.,doesforcedchoicefromor-ganizationalpracticesreducedissonance,dosocialandfinancialresourcesequallybufferagainstthestrainofemotionallabor?),ratherthanfocusingononeparadigmoranother.
Expandbeyondjobburnoutandsatisfaction.Muchoftheworkconductedonwell-beingandemotionallaborhasutilizedself-reportedassessmentsofjob-relatedstrainandattitudes.Adis-sonanceparadigmrequiresexaminingself-relevantconstructsasbuffersoroutcomesfromen-gaginginemotionallabor,suchasself-esteemoridentity.Aresourceparadigmsuggestsafocusonperceivedorobjectivelevelsofresources.Moretheory-drivenandinnovativechoicesforoutcomesareneeded.Oneareaofpromiseisphysiologicalassessmentstoindicatewell-being.Notably,thedissonancemechanismassumesarousalandtension,whereastheresourcelossmechanismassumesexhaustionandfatigue;thesecouldbeindicatedbyphysiologicalmeasurement.Exper-imentalconditionsthatproducedissonance(i.e.,positiveemotionalrequirementsandcustomerincivility)correspondedwithincreasedbloodpressureandheartrate(Hoppetal.2010).Lon-gitudinalapproachescoulddeterminehowandwhendissonancearousalresultsinresourcelossesthroughexhaustion.
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