Chapter 1 introduction（重点） 语言学 Linguistics is generally defined as the scientific study of language. 核心The score of linguistics:
1.语音学 Phonetics is the study of how sounds are produced, transmitted and perceived/received. 2.音位学 Phonology is the study of the function of sounds and their patterns of combination. 3.词法学 Morphology is the study of how words are formed. 4.句法学 Syntax is the study of how sentences are formed.
5.语义学 Semantics is the study of meaning of words, phrases and sentences.
6.语用学 Pragmatics is the study of how language is used to effect successful communication. 非核心：
7.社会语言学 Sociolinguistics is the study of all social aspects of language and its relations with society. 8.心理语言学 Psycholinguistics is the study of language processing(语言加工), that is the processes of
language comprehension and production（理解和制造）.
9.应用语言学 Applied linguistics is the study of the application of linguistic theories and principles to
language teaching, especially the teaching of foreign and second languages.
Some important distinctions in linguistics:
1. 描述性 descriptive: if a linguistic study aims to describe and analyze the language people actually use,
it is said to be.
2. 规定性 prescriptive: if a linguistic study aims to lay down rules for “correct and standard” behavior
in using language. it is said to be.
Descriptive and prescriptive represent two different types of linguistic study. 3. 共时性 synchronic: the study of a language at a point of time in history.(*)
历时性 diachronic: the study of a language over a period of time in history. 4. 口头语 speech
书面语 writing
Q1：Why is speech primary and writing secondary？
A: Modern linguistics gives priority to speech rather than to writing for three reasons:
Historically, speech is prior to writing; the writing system is always “invented” by its usersto record speech when the need arise; there are still many languages that can only be spoken but not written.
Functionally, speech plays a greater role than writing in terms of the amount of information conveyed.
Biologically, speech is always the way in which every native speaker acquires his mother tongue, and writing is learned and taught later.
5. 定义：语言 langue: refers to the abstract linguistic system shared by all the members of a speech
community.(abstract, stable, shared by all)
1
言语 parole: refers to the realization of langue in actual use.(Concrete, changeable, vary from person to person)
F. de Saussure 索绪尔，现代语言学之父《course in general linguistics》 6. 语言能力 competence: the ideal user’s knowledge of the rules of his language.
语言行为 performance: the actual realization of this knowledge in linguistic communication. N.Chomsky乔姆斯基
Q2: For what reasons do modern linguistics differ from traditional grammar?根据问题的顺序回答 A: Modern linguistics differs from traditional grammar in three ways:
First, modern linguistics is descriptive while traditional grammar is prescriptive.
Second, modern linguistics regards speech as primary while traditional grammar tends to emphasize, maybe over-emphasize, the importance of writing, partly because of its permanence.
Third, traditional grammar forces languages into a Latin-based framework while modern linguistics does not.
语言Language is a system of arbitrary vocal symbols for human communication. Q3: What are the design features?
There are 5 design features：Arbitrariness/ productivity/ duality/ displacement/ cultural transmission 任意性、能产性、双重性、不受时间限制、文化传递性
Arbitrariness: language is arbitrary; this means that there is no logical connection between meanings and sounds.
Productivity: this means people can produce and understand the unlimited sentences with limited rules. Duality: the meaningful words are made up of meaningless sounds.
Displacement: language can be used to refer to things which are present or not present, real or imagined matters in the past, present, or future, or in far-away places.
Cultural transmission: culture is passed on from one generation to the next through teaching and learning, rather than by instinct.
Chapter 2 Three branches of phonetics: 定义 1. articulatory phonetics发音语言学 2. auditory phonetics听觉语言学 3. acoustic phonetics 声学语言学
Organs of speech 发音器官选择
1. Pharyngeal cavity 咽腔 2. Oral cavity 口腔 3. Nasal cavity 鼻腔
2
Broad transcription and narrow transcription:定义 B.T is a kind of transcription with letter-symbols only.
N.T is a kind of transcription with letter-symbols together with the diacritics变音符号.
元音 vowels are speech sounds in which air stream is not blocked at all.
辅音 consonants are speech sounds in which air stream is blocked in one way or another/ is completely or
partly blocked.
Monophthongs 单元音and diphthongs双元音（认识这两个词）
音位Phoneme is the minimum/ smallest distinctive unit in the sound system of a language. 音位变体 allophone is the realization of a particular phoneme. 音素 phone is the realization of any phoneme.
音位对立 phonemic contract: If two or more sounds can occur in the same environment and the
substitution of one sound or another can bring about a change of meaning, they are said to form a phonemic contract/ contractive distribution.
Big, pig, dig…
3
互补分布 complementary distribution: If they are allophones of the same phoneme, then they do not
distinguish meaning, but complement each other in distribution, they occur in different phonetic environments. They are said to be in complementary distribution.
最小对立对（集） minimal pair/set: When two/three or more different forms are identical in every way
except for one sound which occurs in the same environment, the two/three or more sound combinations are said to form a minimal pair/set.
选出最小对立集：重点看音标，不看拼写
Patterns of combination/some rules in phonology:
Sequential rules/assimilation rule同化规则/deletion rule不发音 Immoral\\impossible\\illegal sign\\know\\signature
超切分特征——重音、声调、语调（选择） Suprasegmental features ------ stress, tone, intonation
Chapter 3
实词Open class words (Content words) are those words to which new words can be added, which
include nouns, verbs, adjectives and adverbs.
虚词 close class words (grammatical/ functional words) are those words to which new words can not be
added, which include conjunctives, prepositions, articles and pronouns.
词素 morpheme is the minimum/ smallest meaningful unit in the grammatical system of a language. 词素变体 allomorph is the realization of a particular morpheme. 形素 morph is the realization of any morpheme.
前缀 prefixes are those morphemes that occur only before other morphemes. 后缀 suffixes are those morphemes that occur only after other morphemes. 自由词素 free morphemes refer to those morphemes that can stand independently. 黏着词素 bound morphemes refer to those morphemes that can not stand independently.
Q4: How are derivational morphemes（屈折词素） differ from inflectional morphemes（派生词素）? A: There are two differences between derivational morphemes and inflectional morphemes:
4
One is in function. Derivational morphemes are used to create new words. Many of them can change the grammatical class of the words. Inflectional morphemes serve to indicate the grammatical relations, such as tense, number and comparative degree, etc. When they are attached to other morphemes, they never produce new words and never cause a change in grammatical class.
The other is position. Inflectional morphemes are always suffixes, but derivational morphemes can be either prefixes or suffixes. When these two type of affixes appear in a word, the inflectional one is always after the derivational one.
7种构词法：选择
Derivation/ affixation 派生法/ 加缀法 Compounding 合成法 Conversion 词性转换 up Blending 混成法 smog Clipping 截短法 math phone Acrpnomy 词首字母法 WTO
Back-formation逆构法 逆成的都是动词 babysitter-babysit
Chapter 4 画树形图
Chapter 5 语义学Semantics can be simply defined as the study of meaning.
同义关系Synonymy refers to the sameness or close similarity of meaning, words that are close in meaning
are called synonyms.
一词多义 Polysemy: one word may have more than one meaning.
上下义关系 Hyponymy refers to the sense relation between a more general, more inclusive word and a
more specific word.
反义词 Antonymy: words that are opposite in meaning. 语义反常 Semantically anomalous
Chapter 6 重点
Q5: How are sentence meaning（句子意义） and utterance meaning（话语意义） related, and how do they differ?
A: If we take “The dog is barking” as a grammatical unit and consider it as a self-contained unit in isolation from context, we are treating it as a sentence. If we take “The dog is barking” as something a speaker utters in a certain situation with a certain purpose, then we are treating it as a utterance. The meaning of a sentence is abstract（抽象的）, and decontextualizd（脱离语境的）, that of an utterance is concrete（具体的）, and context-dependent（依赖语境的）. The meaning of an utterance is based on sentence meaning; it is the realization of the abstract meaning of a sentence in a real situation of communication, or simply in a context.（话语的意义基于句子的意义之上，它是句子的抽象意义在交际的真实场景中的体现）
5