词汇
1. Whether they are republics or constitutional monarchies, it is government agencies putting into practice legislative acts that represent the will of the people.
2. While the executive, legislative, and judicial branches are separate and distinct in the United States, all sides struggle to influence the others.
3. Most of what an executive does is to manage existing programs, to run the bureaucracy.
4. These appointees, while functioning as top managers significant management responsibilities, are seldom professional managers and seldom think of themselves as management experts.
5. These middle managers, despite their disparity in functions and technical backgrounds, largely continue the management specialty of public administration.
6. They spend their working lives fighting as officers in the administrative wars started by their political leaders.
7. Mickey Mouse is often used to mean red tape, the symbol of excessive formality and attention to routine.
8. Organization create and retain such seemingly rigid “practices and features” because they promote efficiency and equity on the whole-even though this may not be true in many individual cases.
9. Although he ended as the chief of staff of the U.S. Army, he is on nobody’s list of great generals.
10. If you want to be a leading actor, you must only play leading parts--“much better to play Hamlet in Denver than Laertes on Broadway.”
11. Often this calls for the creation of organizations, public agencies, and bureaus,
which in turn need to create more policies that give guidance to the organization’s employees on how to put into practice the overall public policy.
12. Their democracy consisted of rule by an elite group of male citizens, whose well-being was maintained by politically suppressed women and a large slave population (which was not a desirable situation if you were a woman and worse if you were a slave).
13. In a democracy the people meet and exercise the government in person; in a republic, they assemble and administer it by their representatives and agents.
14. Because of the necessities of both hot and cold wars, the President has been unusually strong vis-à-vis the Congress.
15. As Aristotle had warned, time and again throughout history these pure democracies had been captured by demagogues and had degenerated into dictatorial tyrannies.
16. After all, it has the greatest number of enumerated powers and the executive and judicial branches must enforce its laws.
17. He was disdainful of those who asserted the presence of a “residuum of power” when he clearly saw none.
18. A president, according to this view, could at least for a short while even assume dictatorial powers.
19. However, when recent Presidents have sought extraordinary powers, even with claims of national security and executive privilege, they have been “checked” by the Supreme Court.
20. The important thing to remember is that this theory of executive power is quietly reserved to support the efforts of a leader who sees the nation through in a time of crisis, or, alternately, it lurks in the hands of an unprincipled opportunist or demagogue to stifle
republican institutions.
21. A constitution provides the basic political and legal structure, the architecture, which prescribes the rules by which a government operates.
22. Only the realm of foreign affairs has substantially escaped this tendency, although the war on terror has increasingly brought back questions of the rights of prisoners to the American courts.
23. Unlike the British parliamentary machinery of government that evolved over hundreds of years, the American machinery was created at one moment in time for its specific purpose.
24. The Court unanimously declared its support for red tape, the treasured procedural safeguards that protect us even when we do wish to be protected, and the law’s delay.
25. While the inefficiency of the separation of powers is to be highly valued for its protection of basic liberties, this is no excuse for individual agencies to be inefficient as organization.
26. This is an institution whose existence rests on custom rather than constitutional provision, even though its chief members, the secretaries of the federal executive departments, must be approved by the Senate.
27. The American machinery of government, which requires cabinet secretaries to be responsible both to the President and the Congress (with its competing interests) makes that virtually impossible.
28. Some Presidents have convened their cabinet only for the most formal and routine matters, while others have relied on it for advice and support.
29. While all cabinet secretaries are equal in rank and salary, the missions of those in the inner cabinet tend to give them an advantage in prestige, access, and visibility denied to
those who head the rest of, or the “outer,” cabinet.
30. Thus all such commissioners can serve to the end of their fixed terms unless impeached by Congress.
31. Similarly, the Constitution makes explicit the limits of federal intervention in state matters, including restrictions on the federal government’s ability to tax interstate commerce (Article I, Section 9).
32. This amendment, commonly known as the reserved powers clause, has been at the heart of numerous debates on the balance of power between the national and state governments.
33. Sometimes a community is so dominated by one ethnic group that this impacts their relations--their intergovernmental relations--with their levels of government.
34. For example, the United States has long practiced the art of gerrymandering, the reshaping of an electoral district to enhance the political fortunes of the party in power, as opposed to creating a district with geographic compactness.
35. This encouraged a spate of affirmative gerrymandering, redistricting to consolidate minority votes so that a minority group member will most likely win the next election.
36. However, in the 1995 case of Louisiana v. Hays, the Supreme Court seemed to put severe inhibitions on this when it ruled that congressional district lines are unconstitutional if race is the “predominant factor” in drawing them. Nevertheless, the Court did not say that race could not be a factor at all.
37. Marble-cake federalism is usually associated with Morton Grodzins, who made a famous example out of case of rural country health officials called sanitarians.
38. Sanitarians are appointed by the state government under merit standards established by the federal government, and while their base salaries come from state and
federal funds, the country provides them with offices and office amenities and pays a portion of their expenses.
39. He is a federal officer when impounding impure drugs shipped from a neighboring state; a federal-state officer when distributing typhoid immunization serum; a state officer when enforcing standards of industrial hygiene; a state-local officer when inspecting the city’s water supply; and (to complete the circle) a local officer when insisting that the city butchers adopt more hygiene methods of handling their garbage.
40. It takes wise legislators at each level to comprehend how their legislation will fit in with that being developed at other levels--and officials working at each level may find it a major task to see that their work is compatible with that of people working on similar topics in other levels of government.
41. The staff concept evolved to overcome the inherent limitations of a single mind and ever-fleeting time.
42. Organizational structures and production systems needed constant tinkering and refining to take best advantage of ever-evolving technology.
43. Just as industrial engineers sought to design “the best” machines to keep factories productive, industrial and mechanical engineering-type thinking dominated theories about “the best way” to organize people for their role as part of the overall industrial machine.
44. The concept was first formally instituted in the military, and it can be traced back to the ancient Greek armies of Alexander the Great.
45. While generals have always had aides-de-camp, the modern military general staff principally originates from the Prussian military reforms that transformed an inefficient army into the foremost military machine in Europe by the middle of the nineteenth century.
46. The general staff then developed the strategies and tactics that Germany would use