3.2 Lexical Devices
3.2.1 Introduction
In this section we will deal with two main types of lexical devices. One is lexical options, or the way writers choose their words to express their ideas clearly and effectively, in the appropriate context and situation. The other is lexical repetition, or the way writers repeat words for artistic and stylistic effect.
1. General Remarks
When we say \ we really imply that words have power. A large vocabulary, alone，however，does not give one power with words. It is one's stock of vocabulary plus the knowledge of how to use words correctly and appropriately in the right place and to the right person that gives one the freedom and ability to influence with words.
The lexical options are many and varied because:
?The English vocabulary is rich, heterogeneous and cosmopolitan. ?The wealth of synonyms, and the subtle
Shades of meaning between synonymous words, makes the making of choices sometimes even difficult.
?The English language, moreover, has greatly changed from what it was in Shakespeare's time, or
even in Dickens's time.
Below is a discussion of major lexical options that have prevailed to this day.
2. Short Words or Long Words
Short words: monosyllabic words of Anglo-Saxon origin
Long words: polysyllabic words of Latin, French or Greek origin.
The English vernacular has a large number of monosyllabic words. These words were once considered not conducive (helpful) to elegant, scholarly or artistic expression. On the other hand, the abundant use of polysyllabic words often makes for a heavy cumbersome effect, however learned the subject or tone.
The decision to use a short word or a long one is not always a simple one. There are many factors involved. For one thing, words have other qualities besides shortness or longness. They have sound and meaning and associations.
Shakespeare knew the magic of monosyllabic words if used with an ear to their sound, sense and ―tripping‖ rhythm.
Hemingway also knew how to use short words to great effect, setting them off with a sprinkling of longer ones, as the following extracts from The Snows of Kilimanjaro show:
―The cot the man lay on was in the wide shade of a mimosa含羞草tree and as he looked out past the shade on to the glare of the plain there were three of the big birds squatted obscenely, while in the sky a dozen more sailed, making quick-moving shadows as they passed.‖
\right. Now he would not care for death. One thing he had always dreaded was the pain. He could stand pain as well as any man, until it went on too long, and wore him out, but here he had something that had hurt frightfully and just when he had felt it breaking him, the pain had stopped.\
In this extract, we can see the dying man is in no condition for laborious thinking. The short simple words come without effort to his mind.
Short monosyllabic words are also very forceful in persuasive writing or oratory. Winston Churchill's \ spoken as he took over leadership of the British anti-Fascist struggle in WWII are well known. See also John F. Kennedy‘s ―Inaugural Address‖.
However, it must be admitted that there are many events and situations in life which require fuller descriptions than monosyllables can provide.
The passage below contain words of more than one syllable. Notice the different rhythm of the prose, the different rhetorical effect, the careful choice and arrangement of the short and long words.
While enjoying a month of fine weather at the sea-coast, I was thrown into the company of a most fascinating creature, a real goddess, in my eyes, as long as she took no notice of me. I \told my love\head and ears; she understood me, at last, and looked a return -- the sweetest of all imaginable looks -- and what did I do? I confess it with shame -- shrunk icily into myself, like a snail, at every glance retired colder and farther; till, finally, the poor innocent was led to doubt her own senses, and, overwhelmed with confusion at her supposed mistake, persuaded her mamma to decamp.
(Emily Bronte: Wuthering Heights)
3. Common Words or Learned Words
Learned Words: Latinisms (mainly to Latinate words )
Common Words: words of native origin (vernacular/English words of Anglo-Saxon origin) + words borrowed from other-than-Latin languages
In the history of the English language, Latin was generally acknowledged and accepted as the language of learning and scholarly discussion, and was a compulsory subject in schools and universities. The choice between common words and learned words was therefore originally a choice between vernacular English and Latin words, and in course of time English won out, and Latinisms and \
Today, learned words still refer mainly to Latinate words, but common words no longer refer purely to English words of Anglo-Saxon origin. The choice of one's diction is, of course, determined by many factors. The rule is to suit one's diction to the occasion, and not to mix things up. E.g.
(1) \. Procrastination is the thief of time. Collar him! \拖延就是浪费时间。
-- Micawber in David Copperfield
(Procrastination, a specific Latin word, is used here as part of a proverbial saying. Collar, Am. Slang: catch)
(2) \Under the temporary pressure of pecuniary liabilities, contracted with a view to their immediate liquidation, but remaining unliquidated through a combination of circumstances, I have been under the necessity of assuming a garb from which my natural instincts recoil -- I allude to my spectacles – and possessing myself of a cognomen, to which I can establish no legitimate pretensions...\
-- Micawber in David Copperfield
In (1) Micawber could speak good simple English like any Englishman.
In (2) when he was emotionally worked up, Micawber used a sort of learned, even legal way of speaking that was quite ridiculous. He could have made himself much clearer if he had simply said that he had to disguise himself and take a false name, as he is in debt, and hiding from his creditors.
It would be wise, therefore, to refrain from using high-sounding words, however much we like them, unless they really suit the occasion.
4. Formal, Informal or Colloquial Words
Formal words: words demanded for formal occasion
Informal or colloquial words: words used on informal occasions
People communicate in different social settings, and the language they use varies with such settings. A formal occasion demands the use of formal diction, and an informal one the use of informal or colloquial diction. Synonymous words also have their levels of formality and informality, as the list below shows:
Formal Informal Colloquial deception trick rip-off depart leave scoot, split
insane mad nutty, a screw loose residence house digs commence start/begin kick off retire go to bed hit the sack
Types of writing require formal diction: –official and legal documents,
–academic and professional writing -- (essays, reports, reviews, etc.), –editorials,
–formal invitations, –applications, –notifications
The language we use varies with different settings. There are levels of formality. Of course, diction alone does not make for formality: there is the combined effect of the syntactic patterns (longer, and often complex), the use of impersonal tone, an emphasis on factual matters, on serious subjects, as the examples below illustrate:
(1) The General Assembly may discuss any questions or any matters within the scope of the
present Charter or relating to the powers and functions of any organs provided for in the present Charter, and, except as provided in Article 12, may make recommendations to the Members of the United Nations or to the Security Council or to both on any such questions or matters.
(Article 10, United Nations Charter)
(2) An Introduction, the subtitle of Historical Linguistics, has determined the scope of this book.
My aim throughout is to provide an introduction to general principles. The methods used in historical linguistic study and the types of change found in language may have been dealt with compactly, but the space devoted to each reflects its importance and its contribution to the field. Through this presentation students should become acquainted with the various techniques used in historical linguistics, while instructors may pursue in greater depth principles or methods that are of interest at the moment. (W. P. Lehmann: Preface to Historical Linguistics)
It can be seen that the tone of (1) is more formal than (2).
Supposing we want to repeat the ideas of Lehmann in (2) in informal language. What would we
do? We would change some of his expressions and reword them in different sentence patterns. We might get something like the following:
(3) Lehmann‘s Historical Linguistics introduces us to the general principles of the subject. He
deals briefly but adequately with the methods of study, and with the types of language change that have taken place. It is a handy guidebook for students, and a useful reference for teachers who are interested in going deeper into some of the methods or principles.
At an even more informal level, we could talk about the book in this way:
(4) Lehmann's Historical Linguistics tells us in a nutshell what the subject is all about. We can learn not only methods of study, but also how to do further research, it‘s a real buy.
The informal language of (4) could only be used among friends or intimates. The more intimate the relationship between people, the more informal the language, apart from considerations of respect for age or seniority.
The rule to remember is not to mix up formal and informal diction in one piece of writing, unless it is for a stylistic purpose.
In the following passage from George Bernard Shaw‘s Pygmalion, Eliza Doolittle mixes up her levels of diction, and fails her first test at \party in Mrs. Higgins‘s home. (Pygmalion: a linguist in the play who trains a flower girl to speak ―correct speech‖)
(5) Mrs. Higgins (at last conversationally): Will it rain, do you think?
Eliza: The shallow depression in the west of these islands is likely to move slowly in an easterly
direction. There are no indications of any great change in the barometrical situation. … …
Mrs Eynsford Hill: I'm sure I hope it won't turn cold. There's so much influenza about. It runs
right through our whole family regularly every spring.
Eliza (darkly): My aunt died of influenza, so they said. Mrs Eynsford Hill (clicks her tongue sympathetically)!!!
Eliza (in the same tragic tone): But it's my belief they done her in. Mrs Higgins (puzzled): Done her in?
Eliza (piling up her indictment): What call would a woman with that strength in her have to die
of influenza? What become of her new straw hat that should have come to me? Somebody pinched it; and what I say is, them as pinched it done her in.
Mrs Eynsford Hill: What does doing her in mean?
Eliza commits some more mistakes in diction until she is stopped from going on by Professor Higgins, her language coach. When leaving the party, she makes the most devastating mistake of all:
Freddy (opening the door for her): Are you walking across the park, Miss Doolittle? If so . . . Eliza (with perfectly elegant diction): Walk! Not bloody likely. (Sensation) I am going in a taxi.
(bloody:（俚）起强调作用)
Here are some more examples:
(6) I had my first date with Polly the following evening. This was in the nature of a survey; I
wanted to find out just how much work I had to do to get her mind up to the standard I required. I took her first to dinner. ―Gee, that was a delish dinner,‖ she said as we left the restaurant. Then I took her to a movie. ―Gee, that was a marvy movie,‖ she said as we left the theater. And then I took her home. ―Gee, I had a sensaysh time,‖ she said as she bade me
good night.
(Max Shulman: ―Love is a Fallacy‖)
（7）他们又故意高声嚷到，―你一定又偷了人家的东西了！‖孔已己睁大眼睛说，―你怎么这
样凭空污人清白……‖―什么清白？我前天亲眼见你偷了何家的书，吊着打。‖孔已己便涨红了脸，额上的青筋条条绽出，争辩道，―窃书不能算偷……窃书！……读书人的事，能算偷么？‖
(Then someone else would bawl: ―You must have been stealing again!‖ ―Why sully a man‘s
good name for no reason at all?‖ Kong Yiji would ask, raising his eyebrows. ―Good name? Why, the day before yesterday you were trussed up and beaten for stealing books from the Ho family. I saw you!‖ At that Kong Yiji would flush, the veins on his forehead standing out as he protested, ―Taking books can‘t be counted as stealing … Taking books … for ma scholar … can‘t be counted as stealing.‖)
(8) ―蓉哥儿，你别在焦大跟前使主子性儿。别说你这样儿的，就是你爹、你爷爷也不敢和焦
大挺腰子！不是焦大一个人，你们就做官儿享荣华受富贵？你祖宗九死一生挣下这家业，到如今了，不报我的恩，反和我充起主子来了。不和我说别的还可以，若再说别的，咱们红刀子进去白刀子出来！‖
（红楼梦》：第七回）
5. General or Specific Words
General words: words referring to groups or classes, to broad nature or general quality
Specific Words: words referring to individuals, to particularized features or qualities
General and specific are terms which are both opposite and relative. General and specific are relative terms in the sense that a word may he general compared with another, and be specific when compared with yet another. For instance, the word car is general when compared with jeep, but it is specific when compared with vehicle. Bread is general compared with buns or rolls, but it is specific when compared with staple foods.
E.g. Nouns
General Specific
the building the library, the Poeny Hotel the river the Yellow River
the disaster the Chernobyl nuclear disaster big cities New York, Shanghai, London weapons rifles, pistols, rockets, bombs? ships carriers, cruisers, ferries
Adjectives &. Adverbs
General Specific
fine day sunny, warm, cool, cloudless pretty dress well-cut - fitting, white suit
speak well clearly, with perfect diction work hard without rest, 15 hours a day,
Verbs
General Specific
walk stroll , march. stride, stagger eat swallow, gobble, nibble, pick at