Assertives/representatives
---- Stating or describing, saying what the speaker believes to be true, e.g. I think the film is moving.
I?m certain I have never seen the man before. I solemnly swear that he had got it. …
Directives
---- Trying to get the hearer to do something, e.g. I order you to leave right now. Open the window, please. Your money or your life! …
Commissives
---- Committing the speaker himself to some future course of action, e.g. I promise to come.
I will bring you the book tomorrow without fail. …
Expressives
----Expressing the speaker’s psychological state about something, e.g. I?m sorry for being late.
I apologize for the sufferings that the war has caused to your people. …
Declarations
----Bringing about an immediate change in the existing state or affairs, e.g. I now appoint you chairman of the committee. You are fired.
I now declare the meeting open. …
Note: (1) All the acts that belong to the same category share the same purpose but differ in their strength or force, e.g.
I guess / am sure / swear he is the murderer.
Note: (2) In order to get someone open the door, we can choose one from a variety of the forms in below:
Could you open the door, please! Can you open the door!
Do you mind opening the door? Open the door! The door please!
Principle of conversation (Paul Grice)
Cooperative principle (CP)---- According to Grice, in making conversation, there is a general principle which all participants are expected to observe. It goes as follows:
Make your conversational contribution such as required at the stage at which it occurs by the accepted purpose or direction of the talk exchange in which you are engaged. Four maxims of CP The maxim of quality
----Do not say what you believe to be false.
----Do not say that for which you lack adequate evidence. The maxim of quantity
----Make your contribution as informative as required for the current purpose of the exchange. ----Do not make your contribution more informative than is required. The maxim of relation
----Be relevant ( make your contribution relevant). The maxim of manner
----Avoid obscurity of expression. ----Avoid ambiguity. ----Be brief. ----Be orderly.
Conversational implicature
In real communication, however, speakers do not always observe these maxims strictly. These maxims can be violated for various reasons. When any of the maxims is blantantly violated, i.e. both the speaker and the hearer are aware of the violation, our language becomes indirect, then conversational implicature arises. Violation of Maxim of quality
----A: Would you like to go movie with me tonight?
----B: The final exam is approaching. I?m afraid I have to prepare for it.
----A: would you like to come to our party tonight? ----B: I?m afraid I?m not feeling so well tonight.
----A: Who was that lady I saw you with last night? ----B: That was no lady, that was my wife. Violation of maxim of quantity
At a party a young man introduces himself by saying “I?m Robert Sampson from Leeds, 28, unmarried…” “War is war.” “Girls are girls.”
----A:When is Susan?s farewell party? ----B:Sometime next month. Violation of maxim of relation
----A: How did the math exam go today, Jonnie?
----B: We had a basketball match with class 2 and we beat them.
----A: The hostess is an awful bore.
----B: The roses in the garden are beautiful, aren?t they?
----A: What time is it?
----B: The postman has just arrived. Violation of maxim of manner
----A: Shall we get something for the kids? ----B: Yes. But I veto I-C-E-C-R-E-A-M. Politeness principle (Leech)