oust the jurisdiction of courts (although contracts or agreements to arbitrate, or agreements to confer exclusive jurisdiction over a dispute in favour of a foreign court are not caught by this prohibition); (d) contracts to commit a crime, tort or fraud; (e) contracts prejudicial to public safety; and (f) contracts promoting sexual immorality.
这类合同完全无效。如下合同为例：（a）合同妨害司法行政–这包括阻碍司法检控的合同，或者具有挑唆词讼（maintenance）或者助颂图利（champerty）的合同。前者是指某人支持他人提起或对抗诉讼–例如承担诉讼费用，但如果支持者对诉讼的结果有真实的合法的利益而且在当时情形下这种支持是合理的，支持就是被许可的。后者是挑唆词讼的一种，指支持诉讼者试图从他人的诉讼中谋利, 如为自己拿走诉讼的全部或部分赔款等；（b）欺骗政府机构的合同；(c) 逃避法院管辖权的合同（但是仲裁合同或协议以及授予非新加坡法院排他性管辖权的协议并不在禁止之列）；（d）约定犯罪、侵权或欺诈的合同；（e）妨害公共安全的合同；以及（f）关于不道德性关系的合同。
Effect of Statutory Illegality or Illegality at Common Law
成文法上的非法性与普通法上的非法性的后果
8.12.6 Where a contract is rendered void by statute or common law, the general starting point is to treat the contract as if it had never existed. Any outstanding or unperformed obligations under that contract are extinguished. In other words, in so far as enforcement of such outstanding obligations would have required reliance on the illegal contract, no judicial enforcement is possible. Judicial enforcement may still be available, notwithstanding the illegality, if it is possible to do so without referring to the illegal contract, ie by relying on an independent and separate cause of action.
如果合同依成文法或普通法无效，则一般是将它视作自始不存在。合同项下任何现存的或未履行的义务均告消灭。换言之，如执行现存合同义务要基于该非法合同，则司法强制执行不为可能。但是，如果司法强制执行可以无须依据非法合同而进行（例如可以依据一个独立的和分立的案由，则尽管存在合同的非法性，仍然可以进行司法强制执行。
8.12.7 Conversely, the question arises whether any recovery may be had for benefits which have been conferred under an illegal contract. On one view, such benefits will have been conferred without any basis. It may well be that, in some cases, some form of recovery pursuant to the law of unjust enrichment is possible. This is very likely to be allowed in instances where one party repents of the illegal contract and withdraws from it before the illegal purpose of the contract is fulfilled. If such repentance is genuine, voluntary and timely, before any part of the illegal purpose has been carried out, restitutionary recovery pursuant to the principles of unjust enrichment is likely to be allowed [see Chapter 19 on Unjust Enrichment].
有个问题是非法合同项下获得的利益能否予以追回。关于这个问题一方面的意见是，此类利益之授予没有任何基础。在某些情况下，按照不当得利法律进行某种形式的追偿是可能的。如一方在合同的非法目的实现前对非法合同行为悔悟，这种情形下不当得利就可能得当适用。如悔悟在合同的任何非法目的被实现前真诚、自觉、及时地发生，按照不当得利原则进行恢复原状返还财产即可能被允许。见第十九章关于不当得利。
Contracts in Restraint of Trade限制商业的合同
8.12.8 A contract which is wholly in restraint of trade is contrary to public policy and is illegal at common law. Such a contract is void. Leeway, however, is given in light of the fact that, in some contexts, some restraint of trade may well protect legitimate interests.
整体上限制商业的合同有悖公共政策，在普通法上是非法的。此类合同整体无效。但某些情形下亦允许有例外，如果此类限制有助于保护合法利益。
8.12.9 For example, a `reasonable′ restraint of trade clause which seeks to protect: (a) the interests of the parties concerned; (b) and the interests of the public will not be void. Both these aspects of reasonableness must be established.
例如，一项“合理的”限制商业的条款可以是为了寻求保护：（a）有关当事方的利益；（b）以及公共利益，这类合同不被认定无效。上述两方面的合理性都要予以证明。见Thomas Cowan & Co Ltd v Orme [1961] MLJ 41。
8.12.10 This determination will vary from case to case, but significant factors will include the geographic scope as well as the length of time for which the restraint of trade is to apply. The wider and longer the restraint, the more difficult it will be to prove that the restraint is reasonable.
确定合理性要依个案判断，重要的因素包括商业限制适用的地理范围和时间跨度等。限制的宽度与广度越大，越难证明限制的合理与正当性.
Severance分离
8.12.11 Sometimes, illegality might taint only part of a contract, eg, attempts to restrain competition from ex-employees. Such restraints of trade are often incorporated as a covenant or term in an otherwise unobjectionable employment or service contract.
有时候只是合同的一部分具有非法性，比如包括试图限制前雇员竞争的条款。此种商业限制常常作为一项保证或者条款包括在雇用合同中，如无此项条款此类合同不会被反对。
8.12.12 If the restraint of trade covenant is found to be unreasonable, and hence void, the `illegal′ covenant will be severed from the rest of the contract, maintaining the contract′s validity if the severed covenant does not form the whole or the main consideration for the contract. If the severed covenant does form the whole or the main consideration for the contract, no severance will take place and the entire contract is void. 如限制商业条款被认定为不合理而因此与法无据和无效，“非法”的保证将从合同的其他部分分离开来。如被分离的条款不构成全部或主要的合同对价，合同的效力仍维持。如果待被分离的保证确实构成合同的全部的或主要的对价，分离即不应该进行，而合同也整体无效。
8.12.13 Severance may also take effect in a more limited form within the confines of a particular covenant or term. This more limited form of severance is akin to taking a `blue-pencil′ to strike out those words which would render the covenant `unreasonable.′ In doing so, however, the court will not go so far as to re-write the contractual bargain which had been reached by the contracting parties.
分离也可以在一个特定的保证或条款之内以更有限的形式进行，这如同用一只“蓝铅笔”划掉那些导致整个保证条款“不合理”的词句。在如此理案的时候，法庭也不会走得太远以至于重写当事人之间议定的合同。
SECTION 13 JUDICIAL REMEDIES FOR BREACH OF CONTRACT违约的司法救济
Judicial Remedies Contrasted with Self-help Remedies司法救济与自力救济
8.13.1 Following a breach of a condition of a contract, or where the breach causes one party to be deprived of substantially the whole of the benefit of the contract, the aggrieved party may elect to bring the contract to an end. When this happens, both the aggrieved party and the party-in-breach will be released from any outstanding obligations under the contract. This is said to be a `self-help′ remedy because the release is effected without the need for any court approval or intervention.
违反合同的条件（conditions）条款之后，或违约实质上整体剥夺了另一方在合同项下的利益，受损方可以选择终止合同。如此，则受损方和违约方都不再受现有合同义务约束。这被称之为“自力救济”，因为合同义务的解除是当事人自己达成，未经过任何法庭批准或介入。
8.13.2 Where the aggrieved party has suffered financial losses as a result of the breach, or where release of the party-in-breach from outstanding obligations will cause financial loss, discharge of contract alone may not be an adequate remedy. Recourse to other judicial remedies may be needed.
如受损方因对方违约而遭受财务损失，或者解除违约方的现存义务会引起财务损失，那么合同解除本身尚不足以成为救济，而需要求助于司法救济。
Types of Judicial Remedies 司法救济的种类
8.13.3 In relation to contract law, the following types of judicial remedy are commonly sought: (a) the common law remedy of damages; (b) the common law remedy of an action for a fixed sum; (c) the equitable remedy of specific performance; and (d) the equitable remedy of injunction. It is important to draw the distinction between the common law and the equitable remedies because, while the former are available as of right, the latter are discretionary.
合同法相关的司法救济手段通常包括以下几种：（a）普通法上的损害赔偿救济；（b）普通法上请求支付固定数目违约金之诉；（c）衡平法上的实际履行救济；以及（d）衡平法上的禁令救济。在普通法和衡平法上的救济之间划清界限很重要，因为前者属于当事人有权获得，后者则依赖法庭的自由裁量。
Availability of Judicial Remedies - Time bars, Limitation Periods and Laches 司法救济之可获得性–时间与时效限制
8.13.4 Urgency should be the order of the day when seeking judicial remedies as access to judicial remedies may be barred by lapse of time.
寻求司法救济要尽快紧急进行，因为司法救济可能因为时间的流逝而不再可得。
8.13.5 Generally speaking, no action may be brought for a breach of contract after 6 years have lapsed from the time when the contract was breached - s 6 of the Limitation Act (Cap 163, 1996 Rev Ed). This bars access to the court insofar as the remedies of damages or an action for a fixed sum are concerned. [See Chapter 2 on Court Procedure for a fuller discussion].
总的来说，违约六年以后不得再提起诉讼。见《诉讼时效法》（Cap 163, 1996年修订）第6条。这限制了向法庭提起支付固定数目之诉。见第二章关于法庭程序的详细讨论。
8.13.6 In relation to the equitable remedies of specific performance and injunction, the equitable doctrine of laches applies. Shortly put, applicants who delay applying for equitable relief from the courts may be turned away if the delay is inordinate and inexcusable, such that it
would be inequitable to grant such relief. Indeed, an application for an order for specific performance might be denied if the application is not made as soon as the nature of the case might permit.
至于实际履行和禁令的衡平法救济手段，要使用衡平法上的行权懈怠理论。简言之，申请人申请衡平法救济如果迟延，就会被拒绝，如果迟延如此过分和不可原谅以至于授予此种救济将不再公平的话。的确，对实际履行救济的申请，如果在情形显现的时候没有尽快进行，将会被法庭拒绝。见Tay Joo Sing v Ku Yu Sang [1994] 3 SLR 719 at 730。
Damages - Compensation for Pecuniary Loss损害赔偿- 金钱损失的赔补
8.13.7 Contractual damages are awarded to an aggrieved party in the form of a sum of money, in compensation for any pecuniary losses which have been incurred as a result of the breach of contract.
合同损害赔偿以一定数量金钱的方式判给受损方，以赔补其因为对方违约而遭受的任何金钱损失。
Compensation Only仅供赔偿
8.13.8 In general, damages are compensatory in nature. It remains an open question whether, in the appropriate case, damages might be awarded for breach of contract on any other basis. 一般来讲，损害赔偿只是赔偿性质的。在恰当的案情中，损害赔偿能否以其他理由授予，这还是个待定的问题。
Liquidated Compared with Unliquidated Damages约定与未约定的损害赔偿
8.13.9 In some cases, compensation for losses resulting from breach may have been pre-agreed by the contracting parties as a term of the contract. If the agreed sum is a genuine pre-estimate of the loss which could be suffered as a result of a breach of the contract, the court will order that sum to be paid in compensation as liquidated damages. However, if the sum is intended to be a penalty aimed at `punishing′ the party-in-breach, the court will strike down the `penalty′ clause and award unliquidated damages instead to compensate the aggrieved party. 在某型情形中，当事人可能已经事先通过合同条款约定损失的赔偿。如果约定的数额是对违约后损失的真实的事先估算，法庭会将之作为约定的违约金予以支持。但如果这个数额是意图作为对违约方的“惩罚”，法庭会撤消惩罚条款，代之以赔补受损人损失的未约定损害赔偿。
Quantification and Measure of Unliquidated Damages未约定损害赔偿的数量化与方式
8.13.10 The court will usually quantify unliquidated damages so as to place the aggrieved party, as far as money can do so, in the position he or she would have been had the contract been performed fully instead of being breached. Therefore, if the aggrieved party would have expected to make a profit by resale of goods which had been purchased from the party-in-breach, but where such profit falls away because of non-delivery and breach, the aggrieved party′s expectation loss in the form of the loss of profit may be recovered. Alternatively, where the aggrieved party has to incur additional costs, over and above what was expected under the contract by reason of having to pay for a replacement supply of goods or services following the failure by the party-in-breach to perform his or her contractual obligations, those additional expenses may be recovered by the aggrieved party in compensation as a form of expectation loss. As a further alternative, an aggrieved party may choose to quantify his or her damages on the basis of expenses which were incurred in reliance on the other party performing his or her
contractual obligations, instead of on an expectation basis (unless it is demonstrated that the aggrieved party had made a bad bargain and the reliance expenditure would have exceeded any expected gain).
法庭通常会将未约定的损害赔偿数量化，以在金钱赔偿能做到的范围内，使受损方达到如果合同能够被完全履行（而不是被违反）后他应处的位置。因此，如果受损方本应该从转售从违约方处买来的货物中获得利润，但由于未交付货物或其他违约行为，该项利润不可获得或减少，受损方可以获赔期待损失（表现为利润损失）。作为选择，如果由于违约方的疏于履行合同义务，受损方不得不付出高于合同项下的期待成本的多余成本以购买替代货物或服务，这些多余成本可以以期待损失的方式获得补偿。作为更多的选择，受损方可以选择以对另一方履行合同义务的信赖作为根据将其损失数量化，而不是以期待为根据（除非能证明受损方只是做了一个很蠢的协商，从而信赖损失要远远高于期待利益）。
Time of Quantification数量化的时间
8.13.11 In most instances, unliquidated damages will be assessed as at the time of the breach although, in appropriate cases, the court may take into account events occurring after the breach. 在大多数情况下，未约定损害赔偿应于违约之时为准来估算，但是在适当情形下，法庭也会考虑违约后发生的事件。
Restrictions on Recovery of Unliquidated Damages对追索未约定赔偿的限制
8.13.12 It is not the case, however, that unliquidated damages are available for all losses. Recovery is subject to certain restrictions.
但未约定损害赔偿并非对所有损失都适用。追索受到多种限制
Non-pecuniary Loss非金钱损失
8.13.13 First, non-pecuniary losses (ie for hurt feelings, disappointment, mental distress, and so forth), are generally not compensable except in certain limited circumstances - for example, where the contractual obligation itself related to non-pecuniary matters, as in the case of a contract for a package holiday.
首先，非金钱损失（如感情伤害、失望、精神痛苦等）一般不能获得赔偿，除非在某些限定的情况下，如合同义务本身事关非金钱事项，如一切由旅游社代办的固定费用假日旅游等。
Remoteness of Loss损失的遥远性
8.13.14 Second, losses which are too remote are not compensable. Losses which arise in the usual course of things as a result of the breach are not too remote, and are compensable. Losses which are out of the ordinary and which would not ordinarily have been in the contemplation of either party to the contract are not - unless the party-in-breach knew or ought to have known about the possibility of such unusual losses.
第二，过于遥远的损失不能获赔偿。在这方面新加坡法律采取了判例Hadley v Baxendale (1854) 9 Ex 341中的立场。因此，因损失所发生的正常过程中的损失都不算遥远，因而可以得到补偿。非正常的-从而也不在任何当事人订立合同时的考量范围之内的–损失不被赔付，除非违约方知道或者应当知道这种不正常损失的可能性。
Mitigation of Loss减损
8.13.15 Third, losses which the aggrieved party could have taken reasonable steps to avoid, but did not, are not compensable. This is to encourage mitigation of losses, that is, steps by the