跨文化交际学 第一部分 引论
1,文化的定义：
Culture refers to the total pattern of beliefs ,customs,institutions,objects,and techniques that characterize the life of ahuman community.
The objective culture means we learn the facts about our own or other cultures. The subjective culture includes feelings and attitudes about how things are and how they should be. 2,文化是什么：
Culture is like an iceberg;culture is our software;culture is like the water a fish swims in;culture is the story we tell ourselves about ourselves;culture is the grammer of our behavior. 3,文化的特征：
(1)An important characteristic of culture is that it is shared,these shared aspects of culture are part of the objective culture;
(2)As participants in a culture,we are meaning makers,sharing culture is sharing meanings;
(3)Culture are always changing.
4,学习文化与学习做文化的差异 （中西P21） 5,跨文化交际意识的四个不同阶段：
Level one:cultural differences are exotic异国风情的; Level two:cultural differences are frustrating有挫折的; Level three:the different culture is believable;
Level four:the different culture is believable as lived experience. 6,语言与文化的关系：
Language is part of culture;
Language is the carrier and container of culture, as a mirror of culture, language is strongly influenced and shaped by culture;
Language also exerts its influence on culture, language and culture is closely related, each influencing and shaping the other.
第二部分 文化差别和词的涵义
1,词的涵义的概念：
Connotation:the implication of a word,apart from its primary meaning（朗曼）；
the suggesting of a meaning by a word apart from the thing it
explicitly names or describes（韦氏）.
2,英汉两种词汇存在语义差异(semantic differences)的四种情况：（语言P151） (1)a term in one language that does not have a counterpart相对应的 in another language;
(2)words or terms in both languages that appear to refer to the same object or concept on the surface,but which actually refer to quite different things;
(3)things or concepts that are represented by one or perhaps two terms in one language,but by many more terms in the other language;that is,finer distinctions exist in the other language;
(4)terms that have more or less the same primary meaning,but which have secondary or additional meanings that may differ considerably from each other. 3,解决英、汉语词汇不对应的方法：（语言P11） (1)explaining the term释义
(2)giving a name that sounds the same as the original term译音 (3)creating a name造词
(4)using two or more methods综合 4,intellectual=知识分子？
In china,the term 知识分子generally includes college teachers,college students,and such people as medical doctors,engineers,interpreters－people who had a college education－and middle school teachers.
In the U.S and Europe,however,intellectuals would include only people of high academic status such as college professors,but not ordinary college students.Intellectual is not always a complimentary term褒义 in the U.S. 5,社会生活和政治生活中缺乏对应关系的词语：
斗争会-----struggle meeting? Revival meeting、bingo party、bingo game? 6,自然现象中缺乏对应关系的词语：
节气---solar terms? 雨水----Rain Water? 惊蛰---Waking of Insects? 清明----Pure and Brightness?
春分=Spring Equinox 夏至=Summer Solstice 秋分=Autumn Equinox 冬至=Winter Solstice
7,日常生活中缺乏对应关系的词语：
炕(kang) 冰糖葫芦(candied haws on a stick) 秤(steelyard) motel(汽车旅馆) hamburger(汉堡包) time clock(出勤记录钟) 8，“貌合神离”的词语：
High school不等于高等学校，是美国的中学
Service station不等于服务站，是给汽油加油和维修的地方 Rest room不等于休息室，是浴室或厕所
Busboy不是公共汽车上的售票员或司机，是指收拾碗碟擦桌子的杂工 Goldbrick不是金锭，指逃避工作的人，尤指爱偷懒的士兵，懒汉 大忙人不等于busybody, busybody是指爱管闲事的人 Political campaign不等于政治运动，指竞选活动
改善生活不等于improve one’s standard of living, improve one’s standard of living表示提高生活水平
令人发指不等于to make one’s hair stand on end, to make one’s hair stand on end是指令人毛骨悚然
自食其言不等于to eat one’s own words, to eat one’s own words指收回自己说的话，一般多用于强迫别人收回所说的话，使他丢脸
To get a kick out of something不等于被踢出去，To get a kick out of something是指欣赏??或从??中得到极大愉快
To blow one’s own horn不等于各吹各的号，To blow one’s own horn是指自吹自擂，老王卖瓜，自卖自夸
9,英汉两语中称呼亲属的词语（语言P17） 10,区分禽兽“公”和“母”的词语：
General terms 鸡chicken Terms of male 公鸡 cock Terms of female 母鸡hen Terms for young 小鸡chick
鸭duck 鹅goose 马horse 牛cattle, cow 羊sheep 猪pig 狗dog 猫cat 鹿deer 公鸭drake 公鹅gander 公马stallion 公牛bull 公羊ram 公猪boar 公狗dog 公猫tomcat 公鹿stag 母鸭duck 母鹅goose 母马mare 母牛cow 母羊ewe 母猪sow 母狗bitch 母猫cat 母鹿doe 小鸭duckling 小鹅gosling 小马foal 小牛calf 小羊lamb 小猪shoat 小狗puppy 小猫kitten 小鹿fawn 11,表示机关名称和职务名称的词语：
英语 Vice Associate Deputy Lieutenant(陆军中尉) under 副 undersecretary 总统、主席、市长、总督、国务卿、领事、校长、教授、主编、指挥等 中 将、校等 英语实例 Vice-chairman, vice-president Associate professor, associate director Deputy chief-of-staff, deputy director Lieutenant governor, lieutenant general 12,不同文化内涵及其产生的不同联想的词语：
Peasant-----农民？peasant在英语中有贬义的意思，是指社会地位低下、没有教养的人 在中国，poor peasant(贫农)和laborer(劳工)含有正面的、积极的含义，在西方，却有反面的、消极的意味，相反，landlord（地主），capitalist（资本家），boss（老板）对中国人来说有贬义，对中国人来说有贬义，而在资本主义国家却不是.
Idealist(唯心主义者？) materialist(唯物主义者？)是指讲究物质利益的人，实利主义者 Politician(政治家？)，在美国，Politician是贬义，指为谋取个人私利而搞政治、耍手腕的人，政治家应指statesman.
政治(politics?),应译为political activities,political work,political study.
13,英汉两语中表示褒义、贬义和中性的不同词语：
中国人（贬义） 野心勃勃的 平均主义的，“大锅饭”的 中国人（褒义） 宣传 n) 词语 propaganda 词语 ambitious Equalitarian(egalitaria的 美国人（贬义） 传播带有偏见的消息以使人赞成或反对某种观点 做好事的人 Do-gooder 第三部分 日常谈话中的文化差别
1, Greetings打招呼
English : use these sentences “how do you do” “how are you” , “hello” or “hi” are frequently used greeting among colleagues, classmates, friends and family members.
For Chinese learners of English it is important to note that many casual greetings in Chinese cannot be carried over into English used as greetings when they meet English speakers. “吃饭了吗”, “上哪儿呀” “去哪了” etc. 2, Farewells告别
English people: when they meet first time: I’m pleased to meet you or it’s nice to meet/know you. It’s nice to have met you. And when they part, they usually say “good-bye, Bye-bye, so long” or “see you later/ tomorrow/on the next Monday.” Chinese people: usually “再见” “再会” “一会儿见” “明天见” “下星期一见”. And when the visit is over and the guest is seen to the door or gateway by the host, and exchange of utterances like “请留步” “请走好 3,称呼亲属的词语：
“mother” ”father” ”grandmother” can be used alone both in English and Chinese. “aunt” “uncle” are often used together with the addressee’s give name, but not in Chinese. For example, Uncle Tom, Aunt Mary.
English speaking people can named their relative by using their name, but we can’t
空想的社会改良家 美国人（褒义） 有雄心的，有抱负的 平均主义的，平等主义