Chapter 4 Syntax句法学 一、本章纲要
Chapter 4 Syntax 1.Syntax as a system of rules 2. Sentence structure 2.1 The basic components of a sentence 2.2 Types of sentences 2.2.1 The simple sentence 2.2.2 The coordinate sentence 2.2.3 The complex sentence 2.3 The linear and hierarchical structures 2.3.1 The linear word order of a sentence 2.3.2 The hierarchical structure of a 2.3.3 Tree diagrams of sentence structure 3. Syntactic categories 3.1 Lexical categories 3.2 Phrasal categories 4. Grammatical relations 5. Combinational rules 5.1 Phrase structure rules 5.2 The recursiveness of phrase structure 5.3 X-bar theory 6. Syntactic movement and movement 6.1 NP- movement and WH- movement 6.2 Other types of movement 6.3 D-structure and S-structure 6.4 Move α—a general movement rule 7. Toward a theory of universal grammar 7.1 General principles of Universal 7.2 The parameters of Universal
二、本章重点
Syntax is a subfield of linguistics that studies the sentence structure of language. (2002，判断；2003名词解释；2007，4选择)
1. Syntax as a system rules句法规则系统
As a major component of grammar, syntax consists of a set of abstract rules that allow words to be combined with other words to form grammatical sentences.
A sentence is considered grammatical when it is in agreement with the grammatical knowledge in the mind of native speakers.
Universally found in the grammars of all human languages, syntactic rules comprise the system of internalized linguistic knowledge of a language speaker known as linguistic competence. (2005，33名词解释)
The syntactic rules of any language are finite in number, and yet there is no limit to the number of sentences native speakers of that language are able to produce and comprehend.
A major goal of linguistics is to show with a consistent and explicit grammatical theory how syntactic rules account for this grammatical knowledge. A theory of grammar must provide a complete characterization of linguistic utterances(言语)that speaker implicitly consider well-formed, or grammatical, sequences.
1）语言学中，句法学是和语音学，音系学，形态学，语义学等并列平行的次系统，主要是来分析研究语言的句子结构。句法是一个由一套数量有限的抽象规则组成的系统，这些抽象规则称为句法规则。根据句法规则，不同的单词组合在一起，产生符合语法性的句子。句法学的中心是研究句子的结构成分。
2）句子的语法性是指句子的合成必须符合操本族语者头脑中的语法知识。生成的句子必须符合语法性。
3）单词合成句子，单词和句法规则的数量是有限的，但借助抽象的句法规则，可以将单词合成数量无限的句子。一方面，说话者要想说出或理解符合语法性的句子，必须遵循句法规则；另一方面，说话者运用句法规则，可以表达或理解从未听说过的句子。
4）任何一种语言，其句法规则必须能够描述和解释为所有本族语者认为是规范的句子。
2. Sentence structure句子结构
2.1 The basic components of a sentence句子的基本组成
A sentence is a structurally independent unit that usually comprises a number of words to form a complete statement, question or command. Normally, a sentence consists of at least a subject (referring expression被指对象) and its predicate which contains a finite verb or a verb phrase. 句子是由一组单词合成的一个结构独立、完整的语法单位，可以用来进行陈述、提问、命令等。一般来说，句子至少要由主语和谓语构成。
主语是指句子中所被指称的对象，如人、物、事、处所、概念等。
谓语是指对句子中对主语进行表述或判断的部分。通常由限定动词或动词词组构成。谓语要受到人称、数、时态各语气的限制。
2.2 Types of sentences
句子的类型，句子可分为简单句、并列句和复合句三大类。
2.2.1 The simple sentence简单句
A simple sentence consists of a single clause which contains a subject and a predicate and stands alone as its own sentence. （2007填空）指一个句子中含有一个主语和一个谓语。
A clause that takes a subject and a finite verb, and at the same time stands structurally alone is known as a finite clause.（2006，14填空）当句子中只含有一个主语和一个限定动词，并且结构独立完整，这个句子又称为定式句。
The central element in a simple sentence, or in each clause, is the finite verb.
2.2.2 The coordinate sentence并列句
Contains two clauses joined by a linking word that is called coordinating conjunction, such as “and”, “but”, “or”. Two clauses are equal parts rather than being subordinate to the other. (2008，填空) 由连接词（或称并列连词）串联起来的两个句子。如and, but ,or等都是并列连词。
例如：I am reading a book, but he is playing.
并列句中的两个子句在结构上是平行同等的，不存在主属之分，各自在结构上是独立的。
2.2.3 The complex sentence复合句
A complex sentence contains two, or more, clauses, one of which is incorporated into the other. (2001,填空)
The incorporated or subordinate clause is normally called an embedded clause (子句), and the clause in which it is embedded is called a matrix clause (主句). （2004，判断；2005，14提阿空）由两个或两个以上的子句构成，各个子句在句中的结构地位不同，其中之一为主要子句即主句，其余为从属子句。
例如：(1) Mary told Jane [that John like linguistics]
（2）Mary saw [John reading a linguistics book]
通过以上可以看出：
1) Embedded clause functions as a grammatical unit in its matrix clause. Therefore, the relationship between the embedded clause and its matrix clause is one of a part to a whole. (2004，判断) 首先，从属子句是复合句中的一个语法单位。因此，从属子句与主句之间是部分与整体的关系。
2) most embedded clauses require an introductory word that is called a subordinator (引导词), such as that, if, before; 其次，多数的从属子句需要连接附属词将自身与主句相合起来，构成完整的句子。连接附属词不仅仅标志从属子句的起始，更为重要的是标志从属子句在主句中的语法功能。
3) an embedded clause may not function as a grammatical well-formed sentence if it stands independently as a simple sentence unless its form changes. 再者，一旦从属子句要作为简单句独立存在，其语法结构是不完整的，除非要进行适当的调整变换。
2.3 The linear and hierarchical structures of sentences句子的线性排列与层次结构
Language is a highly structured system of communication. Sentences are not formed by randomly(随意)combining lexical items, but by following a set of syntactic rules that arrange linguistic elements in a particular order to make a string of words not only meaningful but also linearly- and hierarchically--structured.(线形结构和层次结构) . 语言是高度结构化的系统，句子的组建不是一个随意性的过程，而要遵循一定的句法结构来构成有意义的语句单位。(2002，24判断)
2.3.1 The linear word order of a sentence (words in sentence one after another in a sequence) 句子的线性排列
当说出或写下一个句子，句中的词单位是按照线性排列在一起的；当听到或读出一个句子，也是按照线性一个词一个词地延展下去的。
例如：The student dislikes that boring lecture.
2.3.2 The hierarchical structure of a sentence句子的层次结构（2006，33名词解释）
Sentences are organized by grouping together words of the same syntactic category, such as noun phrase (NP) or verb phrase (VP). 表面来看，词在句子中的组合是按线型排列的，但并不表明句子的结构是线性的。实际上，句子结构的本质具有一种层次性。试对比下面对句子层次的划分。
a. The /student dislikes/ that boring /lecture. b. The student// dislikes/ that boring lecture.
上面每个句子都有两种层次不同的划分，对一个母语是英语的人来说，他会毫不犹豫地认为b句和d句的层次划分是可接受的。如进一步地对b句和d句进行分析研究，会发现这种结构层次划分不是随意的，而是遵循着一定的规则。
Hierarchical structure: the sentence structure that groups words into structural constituents and shows the syntactic categories of each structural constituent, such as NP and VP. 其实，也正是名词词组、动词词组等句法成份单位构成了句子的层次性结构。（2006，2008名词解释）
2.3.3 Tree diagrams of sentence structure句子结构树形图（问答题）
句法学家通常用“成分结构树形图”来揭示或表现句子的层次性结构请看下面图例：
这种“成分结构树形图”不仅可以揭示句子的线形关系，也能揭示句子的层次性。
同时，同一句子所含的不同层次结构，可用树形图来解释句子的多种含义。 例如：A. The old men and the women danced. B. Visiting relatives can be tiresome.
上面两句的层次结构是含糊不明确的，每句都可分别理解为：
A (1): The old men and the old women danced.
A (2): The old men and the women (who were not old) danced.
B (1): Relatives who are visiting can be tiresome. B (2): To visit relatives can be tiresome.
上面每句的两种不同理解可用“成分结构树形图”来清楚明了地区分。 A (1) The old men and the old women danced.
A (2) The old men and the women (who were not old) danced.
B(1) Relatives who are visiting can be tiresome.