自考英语语言学Chapter 4 Syntax(2)

2019-03-22 15:08

B (2) To visit relatives can be tiresome.

3. Syntactic categories句法类型

所有的词都有某种词类属性即词性。词可分为主要词类和次要词类两种。

Apart from sentences (S) and clauses (C), a syntactic category usually refers to a word (called a lexical category) or a phrase (phrasal category) that performs a particular grammatical function, such as the subject in a sentence. Constituents that can be substituted for one another without loss of grammaticality belong to the same syntactic category. 句法类型多指词类型和词组类型,它们在句子中都起着语法功能,如作主语或宾语。而且,同属一个句法类型的词或词组在相互替换时不失句子的语法性。

3.1 Lexical categories词类型

(2005,24 判断; 2008单选) Words are organized into groups of lexical categories, commonly known as parts of speech (词类).

(2006,24判断)Major lexical categories are open categories in the sense that new words are constantly added, including 4 – noun, verb, adjective, and adverb. Minor lexical categories are closed ones as the number of lexical items are fixed and no new members are allowed for, including 6.

所有的词都有某种词类属性即词性。词可分为主要词类和次要词类两种。 1)主要词类又称开放词类,可以不断地出现新词。在英语,它们主要有四类:

名词(N): student linguistics lecture 动词(V): like red go 形容词(adj): tall lovely red 副词(adv): loudly constantly hard

2)次要词类又称闭合词类。这些词的数量一般来说是固定不变的,也不允许有新词加入。在英语中,它们主要有六类:

限定词(Det.):the, a, this, his 助词(Aux):can, will, do, be, have 介词(Prep):in, at, to, on

代词(Pron):he, she, us, mine 连词(Conj):and, or, but, while 叹词(lnt):oh, ah, eh

Phrasal categories词组类型

词类不同的词可以合成某一词组,在英语的句法分析中,常有四种词组类型,它们分别为: Four: NP, VP, PP (prepositional), AP (adjective). NP and VP, which are essential components of a sentence, form the two major syntactic categories, that is, the subject and the predicate of a sentence.

名词词组(NP):a red brick, the beautiful lake 动词词组(VP):sing a song, write in ink 介词词组(PP):on the table, at the gate

形容词词组(AP):very clever, quite able

词组是一个句法概念。它可以由一个或一个以上的词组成。无论哪一类词组,都必须含词组名称所表示的词,及名词词组必须含一个名词,动词词组必须含一个动词,介词词组必须含一个介词,形容词词组必须含一个形容词。名词词组和动词词组属句子中最主要的词组。

4. Grammatical relations语法关系

A distinction between the structural and logical functions relations of constituents called grammatical relations. It concerns the way each noun phrase in the sentence relates to the verb. (who does what do whom). Structural vs. logical subject, object. (2002,34名词解释) (**)语法关系是指句子中名词词组与动词的关系,其中涉及到主语和宾语的结构关系和逻辑关系。 从结构关系上看,英语句子中的主语往往出现在动词之前,宾语往往出现在动词不达意之后。这种置动词之前的主语叫作结构主语,置动词之后的宾语叫作结构宾语。结构主语和结构宾语只是句子的形式主语和形式宾语。

从逻辑关系上看,意义起了决定作用。真正意义上的主语和宾语才是句子的逻辑主语和逻辑宾语。逻辑主语指动作的执行者或发出者;逻辑宾语是动作的接受者。逻辑主语和逻辑宾语在句子中的位置并不是固定不变的,它们可能同形式主语(结构主语)与形式宾语(结构宾)位置相同,也可相异。

5. Combinational rules组合规则

5.1 Phrase structural rules短语结构规则

The combinational pattern in a linear formula may be called a phrase structural rule, or rewrite rule.(2001,3 选择) It allows us to better understand how words and phrases form sentences, and so on.

S → NP VP “()”means optional NP → (Det) (Adj) N (PP) (S) VP → V (NP) (PP) (S) AP → A (PP) (S) PP → P NP

一个句子是由一个名词词组和一个动词词组构成。

我们可以用线性公式“S NP VP”(“”读作“可重写为?”)对句子的组合模式加以重写。这种句法重写规则称为短语结构规则。这些规则是支配词的可能结合以形成具有不同语法范畴的短语的结构规则。

以名词短语为例,它可能存在以下的结合形式:如:

a. NP N:Clinton b. NP N: book

c. NP Det. N: a/the pen d. NP Det. Adj. N

a/the funny story

e. NP Adj. N:interesting plays

f. NP Det. N. S: the student who studies English g. NP Det. Adj. N PP:an old man with a stick

h. NP Det. Adj N PPS:the handsome boy with glasses that I like

为了使得名词短语结构规则简明扼要,且具有强大的阐释功能,我们把名词词组可能的结合形式浓缩成一条规则。由于各种形式的名词词组中必须包含一个名词,而其它成分是可选择的,所以这个规则可简化为:

NP (Det) (Adj) N(pp) (S)(括号内的成分是可选择的。) 相同的道理,动词词组、形容词词组和介词词组都可最终提取出一条可能的成分组合规则。概括如下:

S NP VP

NP (Det.) (Adj.) N (PP) (S) VP V (NP) (PP) (S) AP A (PP) (S) PP P NP

5.2 The recursiveness (循环性) of phrase structure rules短语结构规则的循环性

The recursiveness (循环性) of phrase structure rules can generate an indefinite number of sentences, and sentences with infinite length, due to their recursive properties. (2003,24判断;2006,10单选;2007,35名词解释)

根据短语结构规则,短语和句子可以无限循环地组合起来。任何一种语言其语法规则是有限的,词汇量再大也是有限度,然而句子的数量却可以是无限的,句子的长度也可以是无限的。例如:

一个介词词组可含有一个名词词组,而这个名词词组也可接另外一个介词词组,如: with his hands in his pockets

一个名词词组中可能有一个介词词组,而这个介词词组中也可以有另外一个名词词组。 a boy with his glasses on his desk

5.3 X-bar theory标杆理论

a. X” b. X’’ → Spec X’

X’ → X compl Spec X’ (specifier)

X Complement

(head)

Commonly known as the X-bar theory, this widely recognized and highly abstract X-bar schema is capable of reducing the redundancies of individual phrasal structure rules and may well capture certain basic properties shared by all phrasal categories across the languages of the world. 短语结构规则有一个共同点,即都有一个必须出现的词,如名词词组中的名词;动词词组中的动词;因此,可以把它们概括为核心词,每个词组结构也是以 核心词来命名的。这样,所有的短语结构规则可泛写为:XP?X?(X指核心词为名词,动词,形容词或介词中的任何一个;P指词组。) 同时也要注意,不同的短语结构规则中,还有一些可选择的成分。居于核心词(X)之前可称作指示语(specifier),其后的可称为补语(complement),上面的公式可进一步写为:

XP (spec) X (compl)

例如:

这一种最终高度抽象综合的短语结构规则称作X标杆规则。

X标杆法则也可用树状图或公式表示:

X标杆理论也可以用公式来表示:

x’’ x’

Spec x’ x Comp1

这种高度抽象综合的X标杆理论可减少各个具体短语结构规则的繁杂,揭示所有短语结构规则的本质属性,语言学家借此来描述和解释世界上各种语言的共同属性。

6. Syntactic movement and movement rules句法移位和移位规则

Syntactic movement occurs when a constituent in a sentence moves out of its original place to a new position, the sentence involving which cannot be described by phrase structure rules. It was governed by transformational rules, the operation of which may change the syntactic representation of a sentence (句法的表达方式). 短语结构规则是难以用来描述句法移位现象。当一个句子中的一个成分从其原位移向一个新的位置,就产生了句法移位。句法移位是遵循一定的转换规则的。

6.1 NP-movement and WH-movement名词词组移位和WH移位(2006,4单选)

NP-movement occurs when, for example, a sentence changes from the active voice to the passive voice (postpose, prepose).

WH-movement is obligatory in English. It changes a sentence from affirmative to interrogative. 这是英语中两个主要的句法移位。

名词词组从原先所处的位置移至另一位置的句法现象叫作名词词组移位。请看下面一组例子:

A. The teacher taught the student. B. The student was taught by the teacher.

一般认为B句是A句执行名词短语移位的结果。在主动语态句中充当主语的名词词组和充当宾语的名词词组可以逆向移位,使句子转换成被动语态。

另一种常见的移位现象叫作WH-移位,即带WH词的成分从在句子中所处的原位移至另一位置。英语中WH词移至句首是将陈述句转变为特殊疑问句的必要条件。例如: A. He bought the book from the bookstore yesterday.

a:. What did he buy from the bookstore yesterday? b. Where did he buy the book yesterday?

c. When did he buy the book from the bookstore?


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