The friendly grabs, hugs, and kisses of enthusiastic fans can quickly turn into uncontrolled assaults on a celebrity's hair, clothes, and car. Celebrities often get strange letters from people who become obsessed with their idols or from people who threaten to harm them. Worst of all, threats can turn into deeds. The attempt to kill Ronald Reagan and the murder of John Lennon came about because two unbalanced people tried to transfer the celebrity's fame to themselves. Famous people must live with the fact that they are always fair game — and never out of season.
Fill in the missing words: The words _______________ are used to mark the most emphatic detail in the paragraph.
Some essays use a combination of time order and emphatic order. For example, the essay on moviegoing in Chapter 1 includes time order: The writer first describes getting to the theater, then the theater itself, and finally the behavior of patrons during the movie. At the same time, the writer uses emphatic order, ending with the most important reason for her dislike of moviegoing: \of the other patrons are even more of a problem than the theater itself.\
2. Transitions
2.1 Transitional Words
Transitions signal the direction of a writer's thought. They are like the road signs that guide travelers. In the box on the following page are some common transitions, grouped according to the kind of signal they give to readers. Note that certain words provide more than one kind of signal. Addition signals: one, first of all, second, the third reason, also, next, another, and, in addition, moreover, furthermore, finally, last of all
Time signals: first, then, next, after, as, before, while, meanwhile, soon, now, during, finally
Space signals: next to, across, on the opposite side, to the left, to the right, above, below, near, nearby
Change-of-direction signals: but, however, yet, in contrast, although, otherwise, still, on the contrary, on the other hand
Illustration signals: for example, for instance, specifically, as an illustration, once, such as
Conclusion signals: therefore, consequently, thus, then, as a result, in summary, to conclude, last of all, finally
Exercise:
1. Underline the three addition signals in the following selection:
According to this review, we made several significant changes in our testing instruments and procedures. First of all, we purchased three additional versions of the test. This allows us to rotate the versions over time so that we can better ensure the integrity of our placement instrument. We now have also standardized the test results, which not only allows us to accurately compare scores from different versions of the test, but to compare our test results with those from other institutions. The second significant change we made in our testing procedures was to add a new listening component, the test of aural comprehension. This part, a complement to the test, provides an evaluation of one's academic listening abilities. As many other tests all address academic listening skills, the addition of this test
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made our placement of students into these classes more objective and valid. 2. Underline the four time signals in the following selection:
After you've snagged the job of TV sports reporter, you have to begin working on the details of your image. First, invest in two or three truly loud sports jackets. Look for gigantic plaid patterns in odd color combinations like purple and green or orange and blue. These should become familiar enough to viewers so that they will associate that crazy jacket with that dynamic sportscaster. Next, try to cultivate a distinctive voice that will be just annoying enough to be memorable. A nasal whine or a gravelly growl will do it. Be sure to speak only in tough, punchy sentences that seem to be punctuated with imaginary exclamation points. Finally, you must share lots of pompous, obnoxious opinions with your viewers. Your tone of voice must convey the hidden message \If players strike, talk sarcastically about the good old days. If a sports franchise leaves town, say, \
3. Underline the three space signals in the following selection:
The vegetable bin of my refrigerator contained an assortment of weird-looking items. Next to a shriveled, white-coated lemon were two oranges covered with blue fuzz. To the right of the oranges was a bunch of carrots that had begun to sprout points, spikes, knobs, and tendrils. The carrots drooped into U shapes as I picked them up with the tips of my fingers. Near the carrots was a net bag of onions; each onion had sent curling shoots through the net until the whole thing resembled a mass of green spaghetti. The most horrible item, though, was a head of lettuce that had turned into a pool of brown goo. It had seeped out of its bag and coated the bin with a sticky, evil-smelling liquid.
4. Underline the two change-of-direction signals in the following selection:
Taking small children on vacation, for instance, sounds like a wonderful experience for the entire family. But vacations can be scary or emotionally overwhelming times for children. When children are taken away from their usual routine and brought to an unfamiliar place, they can become very frightened. That strange bed in the motel room or the unusual noises in Grandma's spare bedroom may cause nightmares. On vacations, too, children usually clamor to do as many things in one day as they can and to stay up past their usual bedtime. And, since it is vacation time, parents may decide to give in to the children's demands. A parental attitude like this, however, can lead to problems. After a sixteen-hour day of touring the amusement park, eating in a restaurant, and seeing a movie, children can experience sensory and emotional overload. They become cranky, unhappy, or even rebellious and angry.
5. Underline the two illustration signals in the following selection:
Supermarkets also use psychology to encourage you to buy. For example, in most supermarkets, the milk and the bread are either at opposite ends of the store or located far away from the first aisle. Even if you've stopped at the market only for staples like these, you must pass hundreds of items in order to reach them. The odds are that instead of leaving with just a quart of milk, you'll leave with additional purchases as well. Special displays, such as a pyramid of canned green beans in an aisle
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and a large end display of cartons of paper towels, also increase sales. Because you assume that these items are a good buy, you may pick them up. However, they may not even be on sale! Store managers know that the customer is automatically attracted to a display like this, and they will use it to move an overstocked product. 6. Underline the two conclusion signals in the following selection:
Finally, my grandmother was extremely thrifty. She was one of those people who hoard pieces of used aluminum foil after carefully scraping off the cake icing or beef gravy. She had a drawer full of old eyeglasses that dated back at least thirty years. The lens prescriptions were no longer accurate, but Gran couldn't bear to throw away \what situation would involve a desperate need for a dozen pairs of old eyeglasses. We never realized the true extent of Gran's thriftiness, though, until after she died. Her house was to be sold, and therefore we cleaned out its dusty attic. In one corner was a cardboard box filled with two- and three-inch pieces of string. The box was labeled, in Gran's spidery hand, \
2.2 Transitional Sentences
Transitional, or linking, sentences are used between paragraphs to help tie together the supporting paragraphs in an essay. They enable the reader to move smoothly from the idea in one paragraph to the idea in the next paragraph. Here is the linking sentence used in the essay on moviegoing:
Many of the other patrons are even more of a problem than the concession stand.
The words concession stand remind us of the point of the first supporting paragraph, while Many of the other patrons presents the point to be developed in the second supporting paragraph.
Exercise:
Following is a brief sentence outline of an essay. The second and third topic sentences serve as transitional, or linking, sentences. Each reminds us of the point in the preceding paragraph and announces the point to be developed in the current paragraph. In the spaces provided, add the words needed to complete the second and third topic sentences.
Thesis
The most helpful values I learned from my parents are the importance of family support, of hard work, and of a good education.
First supporting paragraph
First, my parents taught me that family members should stick together, especially in time of trouble. . . .
Second supporting paragraph
In addition to teaching me about the importance of _________________________________, my parents taught me the value of ________________________________________________...
Third supporting paragraph
Along with the value of _______________________________________________, my parents
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emphasized the benefits of ________________________________________________...
2.3 Other Connecting Words
In addition to transitions, there are three other kinds of connecting words that help tie together the specific evidence in a paper: repeated words, pronouns, and synonyms. Each will be discussed in turn. 2.3.1 Repeated Words
Many of us have been taught — correctly — not to repeat ourselves in writing. However, repeating key words helps tie together the flow of thought in a paper. Below, repeated words remind readers of the selection's central idea.
One reason for studying psychology is to help you deal with your children. Perhaps your young daughter refuses to go to bed when you want her to and bursts into tears at the least mention of \in handy. Offer her a choice of staying up until 7:30 with you or going upstairs and playing until 8:00. Since she gets to make the choice, she does not feel so powerless and will not resist. Psychology is also useful in rewarding a child for a job well done. Instead of telling your ten-year-old son what a good boy he is when he makes his own bed, tell him how neat it looks, how happy you are to see it, and how proud of him you are for doing it by himself. The psychology books will tell you that being a good boy is much harder to live up to than doing one job well.
2.3.2 Pronouns
Pronouns (he, she, it, you, they, this, that, and others) are another way to connect ideas. Also, using pronouns in place of other words can help you avoid needless repetition. (Note, however, that pronouns should be used with care to avoid the problems described.) Here is a selection that makes good use of pronouns:
Another way for people to economize at an amusement park is to bring their own food. If they pack a nourishing, well-balanced lunch of cold chicken, carrot sticks, and fruit, they will avoid having to pay high prices for hamburgers and hot dogs. They will also save on calories. Also, instead of filling up on soft drinks, they should bring a thermos of iced tea. Iced tea is more refreshing than soda, and itjs a great deal cheaper. Every dollar that is not spent at a refreshment stand is one that can be spent on another ride.
2.3.3 Synonyms
Synonyms are words alike in meaning. Using synonyms can also help move the reader easily from one thought to the next. In addition, the use of synonyms increases variety and interest by avoiding needless repetition.
Note the synonyms for method in the following selection:
There are several methods of fund-raising that work well with small organizations. One technique is to hold an auction, with everyone either contributing an item from home or obtaining a donation from a sympathetic local merchant. Because all the merchandise and the services of the auctioneer have been donated,
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the entire proceeds can be placed in the organization's treasury. A second fund-raising procedure is a car wash. Club members and their children get together on a Saturday and wash all the cars in the neighborhood for a few dollars apiece. A third, time-tested way to raise money is to hold a bake sale, with each family contributing homemade cookies, brownies, layer cakes, or cupcakes. Sold by the piece or by the box, these baked goods will satisfyingly fill both the stomach and the pocketbook.
Exercise:
Read the selection below and then answer the questions about it that follow.
When I think about my childhood in the 1930s, life today seems like the greatest of luxuries, 2In our house, we had only a wood-burning cookstove in the kitchen to keep us warm. In the morning, my father would get up in the icy cold, go downstairs, and light a fire in the black iron range. 4When he called us, I would put off leaving my warm bed until the last possible minute and then quickly grab my school clothes. 5The water pitcher and washing basin in my room would be layered with ice, and my breath would come out as white puffs as I ran downstairs. 6My sisters and I would all dress — as quickly as possible — in the chilly but bearable air of the kitchen. 7
Our schoolroom, once we had arrived, didn't provide much relief from the cold.
8
3
1
Students wore woolen mitts which left their fingers free but covered their palms
9
10
11
and wrists, Even with these, we occasionally suffered chilblains.The throbbing swellings on our hands made writing a painful process. When we returned home in the afternoon, we spent all our indoor hours in the warm kitchen. 12We hated to leave it at bedtime in order to make the return trip to those cold bedrooms and frigid sheets. 13
My mother made up hot-water bottles and gave us hot bricks to tuck under the covers, but nothing could eliminate the agony of that penetrating cold when we first slid under the bedclothes.
1. How many times is the key word cold used?
2. Write here the pronoun that is used for father (sentence 4): ______
3. Write here the words in sentence 3 that are used as a synonym for cookstove: ____________________; write in the words in sentence 10 that are used as a synonym for chilblains: _______________; write in the word in sentence 12 that is used as a synonym for cold: __________.
V. Introductions, Conclusions, and Titles
So far, this chapter has discussed ways to organize and connect the supporting paragraphs of an essay. A well-organized essay, however, also needs a strong introductory paragraph, an effective concluding paragraph, and a good title.
1. Introductory Paragraph
1.1 Functions of the Introduction
A well-written introductory paragraph performs four important roles:
1. It attracts the reader's interest, encouraging him or her to continue reading the essay.
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