prosecution of individuals responsible for genocide, war crimes, and crimes against humanity. The statute defines torture as \infliction of severe pain or suffering, whether physical or mental, upon a person in the custody or under the control of the accused; except that torture shall not include pain or suffering arising only from, inherent in or incidental to, lawful sanctions\Under Article 7 of the statute, torture may be considered a crime against humanity \committed as part of a widespread or systematic attack directed against any civilian population, with knowledge of the attack\certain circumstances, be prosecuted as a war crime.[60]
The ICC came into existence on 1 July 2002[61] and can only prosecute crimes committed on or after that date.[62] The court can generally exercise jurisdiction only in cases where the accused is a national of a state party to the Rome Statute, the alleged crime took place on the territory of a state party, or a situation is referred to the court by the United Nations Security Council.[63] The court is designed to complement existing national judicial systems: it can exercise its jurisdiction only when national courts are unwilling or unable to investigate or prosecute such crimes.[64] Primary responsibility to investigate and punish crimes is therefore reserved to individual states.[65]
Geneva Conventions[edit]
The four Geneva Conventions provide protection for people who fall into enemy hands. The conventions do not clearly divide people into combatant and non-combatant roles. The conventions refer to:
\
\no work of a military character\
\of the armed forces of a Party to the conflict as well as members of militias or volunteer corps forming part of such armed forces\
\resistance movements\
\of regular armed forces who profess allegiance to a government or an authority not recognized by the Detaining Power\
\who accompany the armed forces without actually being members thereof, such as civilian members of military aircraft crews, war correspondents, supply contractors, members of labour units or of services responsible for the welfare of the armed forces\
\arms to resist the invading forces, without having had time to form themselves into regular armed units\
The first (GCI), second (GCII), third (GCIII), and fourth (GCIV) Geneva Conventions are the four most relevant for the treatment of the victims of conflicts. All treaties states in Article 3, in similar wording, that in a non-international armed conflict, \including members of armed forces who have laid down their arms... shall in all circumstances be treated humanely.\particular murder of all kinds, mutilation, cruel treatment and torture\dignity, in particular humiliating and degrading treatment\
GCI covers wounded combatants in an international armed conflict. Under Article 12, members of the armed forces who are sick or wounded \
They shall be treated humanely and cared for by the Party to the conflict in whose power they may be, without any adverse distinction founded on sex, race, nationality, religion, political opinions, or any other similar criteria. Any attempts upon their lives, or violence to their persons, shall be strictly prohibited; in particular, they shall not be murdered or exterminated, subjected to torture or to biological experiments\
GCII covers shipwreck survivors at sea in an international armed conflict. Under Article 12, persons \are at sea and who are wounded, sick or shipwrecked, shall be respected and protected in all circumstances, it being understood that the term \means shipwreck from any cause and includes forced landings at sea by or from aircraft. Such persons shall be treated humanely and cared for by the Parties to the conflict in whose power they may be, without any adverse distinction founded on sex, race, nationality, religion, political opinions, or any other similar criteria. Any attempts upon their lives, or violence to their persons, shall be strictly prohibited; in particular, they shall not be murdered or exterminated, subjected to torture or to biological experiments\
GCIII covers the treatment of prisoners of war (POWs) in an international armed conflict. In particular, Article 17 says that \be inflicted on prisoners of war to secure from them information of any kind whatever. Prisoners of war who refuse to answer may not be threatened, insulted or exposed to unpleasant or disadvantageous treatment of any kind.\\Person\status under GCIV. Captured combatants in an international armed conflict automatically have the protection of GCIII and are POWs under GCIII unless they are determined by a competent tribunal to not be a POW (GCIII Article 5).
GCIV covers most civilians in an international armed conflict, and says they are usually \Article 32, protected persons have the right to protection from \torture, corporal punishments, mutilation and medical or scientific experiments...but also to any other measures of brutality whether applied by non-combatant or military agents\Geneva Convention IV exemptions
GCIV provides an important exemption:
Where in the territory of a Party to the conflict, the latter is satisfied that an individual protected person is definitely suspected of or engaged in activities hostile to the security of the State, such individual person shall not be entitled to claim such rights and privileges under the present Convention [ie GCIV] as would ... be prejudicial to the security of such State ... In each case, such persons shall nevertheless be treated with humanity (GCIV Article 5)
Also, nationals of a State not bound by the Convention are not protected by it, and nationals of a neutral State in the territory of a combatant State, and nationals of a co-belligerent State, cannot claim the protection of GCIV if their home state has normal diplomatic representation in the State that holds them (Article 4), as their diplomatic representatives can take steps to protect them. The requirement to treat persons with \not protected by the Convention.
The George W. Bush administration afforded fewer protections, under GCIII, to detainees in the \whether a person is a lawful combatant, he (or she) must be treated as a POW \has been determined by a competent tribunal\
an unlawful combatant, he is not considered a protected person under GCIII. However, if he is a protected person under GCIV he still has some protection under GCIV, and must be \humanity and, in case of trial, shall not be deprived of the rights of fair and regular trial prescribed by the present Convention\Additional Protocols to the Geneva Conventions
There are two additional protocols to the Geneva Convention: Protocol I (1977), relating to the protection of victims of international armed conflicts and Protocol II (1977), relating to the protection of victims of non-international armed conflicts. These clarify and extend the definitions in some areas, but to date many countries, including the United States, have either not signed them or have not ratified them.
Protocol I does not mention torture but it does affect the treatment of POWs and Protected Persons. In Article 5, the protocol explicitly involves \substitute\to monitor that the Parties to the conflict are enforcing the Conventions.[72] The protocol also broadens the definition of a lawful combatant in wars against \occupation, colonial domination and racist regimes\to include those who carry arms openly but are not wearing uniforms, so that they are now lawful combatants and protected by the Geneva Conventions—although only if the Occupying Power has ratified Protocol I. Under the original conventions combatants without a recognisable insignia could be treated as criminals, and potentially be executed. It also mentions spies, and defines who is a mercenary. Mercenaries and spies are considered an unlawful combatant, and not protected by the same conventions.
Protocol II \and supplements Article 3 [relating to the protection of victims of non-international armed conflicts] common to the Geneva Conventions of 12 August 1949 without modifying its existing conditions of application\or ceased to take part in hostilities is entitled to humane treatment. Among the acts prohibited against these persons are, \to the life, health and physical or mental well-being of persons, in particular murder as well as cruel treatment such as torture, mutilation or any form of corporal punishment\degrading treatment, rape, enforced prostitution and any form of indecent assault\and \to commit any of the foregoing acts\(Article 4.h).[73] Clauses in other articles implore humane treatment of enemy personnel in an internal conflict. These have a bearing on torture, but no other clauses explicitly mention torture. 法律禁止酷刑[编辑]
1948年12月10日联合国大会采用了世界人权宣言》(UDHR)。第五条声明“任何人不得加以酷刑,或施以残忍的、不人道或有辱人格的待遇或惩罚。”[53]从那时起,许多其他国际条约被采纳,防止使用酷刑。最著名的酷刑是相关的条约联合国禁止酷刑公约和1949年日内瓦公约和他们的额外的协议我和二世1977年6月8日。[54] 联合国禁止酷刑公约[编辑]
的联合国禁止酷刑公约和其他残忍、不人道或有辱人格的待遇或处罚1987年6月生效。最相关的文章文章1、2、3、第十六条第一款的规定。 第一条
1。为本公约的目的,“酷刑”这个词意味着行为的严重疼痛或痛苦,无论是身体或精神,是故意造成等目的,对一个人从他或第三人获得信息或忏悔,惩罚他的行为或第三人承诺的嫌疑,或恐吓或强迫他或第三人,或基于任何理由任何形式的歧视,这种疼痛或痛苦时造成的煽动或同意或默许的政府官员或其他代理在一个人官方的能力。它不包括疼痛或痛苦只从,固有的或
偶然的合法的制裁。
2。本文是不影响任何国际文书或国家立法或可能包含更广泛的应用程序的规定。 第二条
1。各缔约国应采取有效的立法、行政、司法或其他措施以防止酷刑的行为在其管辖的任何领土。
2。没有任何特殊情况下,不管的状态战争或战争威胁,内部政治不稳定或任何其他公共应急,可以被作为理由酷刑。
3。一个从上司或公共机关可能不被调用的理由酷刑。 第三条
1。任何缔约国不得驱逐、返回(“refouler”)或引渡一个人到另一个状态,我们有大量的理由相信他会被受到虐待的危险。
2。的目的是确定是否有这样的理由,主管当局应考虑所有相关因素,包括在适用情况下,有关国家的存在一致的总值的模式,公然或大规模侵犯人权。 第十六条
1。各缔约国应采取防止在其管辖的任何领土其他行为的残忍、不人道或有辱人格的待遇或处罚不折磨我条所称,这种行为时犯下的煽动或同意或默许政府官员或其他的人表演,在官方的能力。特别是义务包含在文章10、11、12和13适用的替代引用折磨引用其他形式的残忍,不人道或有辱人格的待遇或处罚。 注意几点:
第一条:酷刑是“严重的疼痛或痛苦”。[55]的欧洲人权法庭(ECHR)影响讨论这一领域的国际法律。看到的部分其他约定ECHR执政的更多细节。
第二条:“没有任何特殊情况”,一个国家可以使用酷刑和不失其条约义务”。[56]
第十六条:要求签字人防止“行为残忍、不人道或有辱人格的待遇或惩罚”,在其管辖的任何领土”。[注1][注2]
2014年5月23日,155个国家是禁止酷刑公约缔约方。[57] 可选的联合国禁止酷刑公约议定书[编辑]
的可选的禁止酷刑公约议定书(OPCAT)于2006年6月22日生效作为一种重要的缔约国。正如第一条中提到的,协议的目的是“建立一个系统,定期由独立的国际和国家机构人剥夺自由的地方,为了防止酷刑和其他残忍、不人道或有辱人格的待遇或惩罚。”[58]每个州批准OPCAT,根据第17条,至少负责创建或维护一个独立的国家预防酷刑国内一级预防的机制。[需要引证]
国际刑事法院罗马规约》[编辑]
主要文章:国际刑事法庭
的罗马规约,建立了国际刑事法庭(ICC),提供个人负责的刑事起诉种族灭绝,战争罪,反人类罪。条例将酷刑定义为“故意的严重疼痛或痛苦,无论是身体或精神,在一个人保管或控制下的指责;除了酷刑不包括疼痛或痛苦只从,固有的或偶然的,合法的制裁”。7条法令下,刑讯逼供可能被认为是反人类罪”时承诺的一部分针对任何平民人口的大规模、系统性的攻击,攻击”的知识。[59]第八条法令的规定,折磨也可能,在某些情况下,作为一个战争罪而被起诉。[60] 国际刑事法庭来到存在2002年7月1日[61年],只能起诉犯罪或之后的日期。[62年]法院通常可以锻炼管辖范围内只有在这种情况下,被告是一个国家的《罗马规约》的缔约国,所谓的犯罪发生在缔约国的领土,或情况是指法院的联合国安理会.[63年]法院是为了补充现有的国家司法系统:它可以行使管辖权,只有当国家法院不愿或无法调查或起诉此类犯罪。[64年]主要责任调查和惩罚犯罪因此保留各州。[65年]
日内瓦公约[编辑]
这四个日内瓦公约提供保护的人落入敌人手中。约定不明确将人分成战斗和非战斗的角色。惯例是指:
“受伤和生病的战士或非战斗人员”
“平民没有参加战争的人,和谁,在他们居住的区域,执行任何工作的军事角色”[66年]
“武装部队的成员冲突的一方以及民兵组织的成员或志愿者队形成这样的武装力量的一部分”
“其他民兵组织的成员和其他志愿者队的成员,包括那些有组织的抵抗运动\“常规武装力量成员自称效忠政府或权威不被拘留的权力”
“人陪军队没有实际成员,如民用军用飞机工作人员的成员,战地记者,供应承包商,工党成员单位和服务负责军队的福利”
”non-occupied领土的居民,他对敌人的方法自然地拿起武器抵抗入侵部队,没有时间形成自己变成常规武装单位”。[67年]
的第一个(GCI),第二个(GCII),第三(GCIII),第四(GCIV)日内瓦公约的四个最相关的处理冲突的受害者。所有条约州第三条,类似的措辞,在国际性武装冲突,“人没有积极参与敌对行动,包括军队放下武器的人……在任何情况下都应得到人道对待。“这项条约还规定,不得有任何“暴力的生活和人,特别是各种各样的谋杀,切割残酷的治疗和折磨”或“暴行在个人尊严,特别是羞辱和有辱人格的待遇”。[68年][69年][70年][71年]
GCI涵盖了受伤的士兵在国际武装冲突。第十二条下,武装部队的成员谁生病或受伤”在任何情况下都应当得到尊重和保护。应当受到人道待遇,关心党的冲突的力量,没有任何的不良区分建立在性别、种族、国籍、宗教信仰、政治观点,或者其他类似的标准。任何企图在他们的生活,或暴力的人,应严格禁止;特别是,他们不得杀害或消灭,受到酷刑或生物实验”。 海上GCII覆盖海难幸存者在国际武装冲突。第十二条下,人“在海上是谁,谁是受伤,生病或海难,应当尊重和保护在所有情况下,它被理解,术语“海难”意味着沉船从任何原因,包括在海上迫降或飞机。这样的人应当人道地对待,照顾各方的冲突的力量,没有任何的不良区分建立在性别、种族、国籍、宗教信仰、政治观点,或者其他类似的标准。任何企图在他们的生活,或暴力的人,应严格禁止;特别是,他们不得杀害或消灭,受到酷刑或生物实验”。
GCIII覆盖的治疗战俘(战俘)在国际武装冲突。特别是,第十七条说“没有身体或精神折磨,也没有任何其他形式的强迫、可能造成在战俘从中获得任何形式的任何信息。战俘拒绝回答可能不是威胁,侮辱或暴露于不愉快的或不利的任何形式的治疗。“战俘地位下GCIII豁免远少于“人”状态下GCIV保护。捕获的战士在国际武装冲突下自动保护GCIII,战俘GCIII除非他们由主管法庭不是一个战俘(GCIII文章5)。
GCIV涵盖了大部分平民在国际武装冲突,并表示他们通常“受保护的人”(见豁免部分后立即这对于那些不)。第三十二条下,保护人员有权保护从“谋杀、酷刑、肉体惩罚,切割和医学或科学实验…而且任何其他措施的残暴行为是否适用于非战斗军事代理人”。 日内瓦公约第四豁免
GCIV提供了一个重要的豁免:
哪里的领土冲突的一方,后者是满足个人保护的人绝对是怀疑或从事敌对活动的安全状态,这样的个人不得有权要求这些权利和特权在当前会议(即GCIV)将…偏见的这种状态的安全……在每种情况下,不过这样的人应当是人类对待(GCIV第五条)
另外,公民的国家不受公约不保护它,和公民的一个中立的国家领土的战斗状态,和公民co-belligerent状态,不能保护GCIV如果他们家乡已经正常外交代表的国家,他们(第四条),作为其外交代表可以采取措施保护它们。待人的要求与“人类”意味着它仍然禁止酷刑个人不受公约保护。