LINGUISTICS
Chapter 1 Introduction
1.1 What is linguistics?
Linguistics may be defined as the scientific study of language (p.1).
1.1.1 The aim of linguistics
This study aims at exploring the common properties that characterize all human languages and therefore linguists are interested in all human languages (living and dead, spoken and written).
1.1.2 Linguistics as a science
(1) The process
a. Make observations of linguistic facts and collect sufficient data and describe them; b. Make generalizations 一般化about the facts observed;
c. Formulate明确地表达 hypotheses 假定to account for the facts observed; d. Test the hypotheses against further observations; e. Develop a theory about how language is constructed. (2) The principles (p.1)
a. Exhaustiveness（广泛性）：One should gather all the materials relevant to investigation. b. Consistency（统一性）: There should not be contradiction and inconsistency between different parts of the total statement.
c. Economy（经济性）: The linguistic structure under investigation should be maximally generalized.
d. Objectivity（客观性）:This requires us to be as objective as possible in the description and analysis of data, allowing no prejudice to influence our generalization.
1.2 Linguistics vs. Traditional grammar (p.2)
(1) Traditional grammar: This school begins with the Greeks and the grammar of Thrax about 400B.C. It is continued by classical Latin grammarians from the 1st century to 6th century. It is characterized by the analysis based on the hypothesis that Latin Grammar is universally applicable for all languages.
(2) F. de Saussure (the founder of modern linguistics) and his contributions:
? Language as a system of symbols;
? The arbitrariness恣意as the nature of linguistic symbols; ? The distinction between langue语言and parole语言(p.16);
? The distinction between synchronic完全同步的and diachronic历经时间长河的study of
language (p.15);
? The distinction between syntagmatic组合关系的and paradigmatic词形变化的properties
of linguistic structure (p.17). ? Signified受指 & Signifier信号物
(3) Chomsky and his contributions:
? Language is defined as a set of rules; ? Competence能力and performance (p.16); ? Innateness天赋hypothesis; ? Deep structure and surface structure.
1.3 The differences between linguistics and traditional grammar (p.2)
(1) Descriptive描写的and prescriptive规范的(p.15); (2) Spoken form vs. written form;
(3) Attitude towards the function of Latin Grammar; (4) Attitude towards language change; (5) Scope范围of interest.
1.4 The scope of linguistics (p.4)
? Phonetics （语音学） ? Phonology （音系学） ? Morphology （形态学） ? Syntax （句法学） ? Semantics （语义学） ? Pragmatics （语用学）
1.5 Macrolinguistics宏观语言学(p.5)
? Psycholinguistics （心理语言学） ? Sociolinguistics （社会语言学） ? Cognitive linguistics （认知语言学） ? Computational linguistics （计算语言学） ? Stylistics （文体语言学） ? Discourse analysis （语篇分析） ? Neurolinguistics （神经语言学）
? Applied linguistics （应用语言学）
The scope or major branches of linguistics
? Theoretical linguistics 1. Phonetics 2. Phonology 3. Morphology 4. Syntax 5. Semantics ? Use of linguistics 1. Applied linguistics 2. Sociolinguistics 3. Psycholinguistics ……
1.6 The nature of language (p.8)
1.6.1 What does “language” mean?
? Specific utterances表达or expressions one uses in speech or in writing in particular
circumstances.
? One’s idiolect.个人习语
? A variety of speech or writing. /A particular system or particular purpose in particular
situation.
? A particular abstract抽象system underlying潜在的the totality of speech behavior of a
community.
? The universal properties characterizing all human natural languages.
1.6.2 The definition of language
Language is a system of arbitrary任意的vocal元音symbols used for human communication (p.8).
a. The symbolic nature of language. b. The linguistic symbol is arbitrary. c. Language is vocal. d. Language is systematic.
e. The basic function of language is for communication. f. Language is human specific.
1.6.3 Defining features of human language (p.10) ? Arbitrariness (任意性) ? Duality （二重性）
? Creativity /productivity（创造性） ? Interchangeability (互换性) ? Displacement （移位性) ? Specialization (特殊性)
? Cultural transmission （文化传递性）
a. Arbitrariness任意
Arbitrariness --- There is not a logical and necessary connection between sounds and meanings in human language.
(1) Animal’s vocal communication system has a fixed one-to-one固定的一对一 connection