…
The constraint约束in a paradigmatic词形变化的is syntactic句法的only. Paradigm （聚合）
? Range of alternative signs范围内可选择的迹象 ? Choice relations
? Vertical sequence纵向序列 ? E.g.: → paradigmatic词形变化的 IRA terrorists scum(渣滓, 卑贱的人) active units
paramilitaries (辅助军队成员) freedom fighters lunatics （疯子, 狂人）
The horizontal syntagmatic组合关系的 axis轴is the realm领域of combination. Conversely相反地, the vertical垂直的 paradigmatic词形变化的axis is the realm of selection选择 and substitution. 代
替
(6) Functionalism机能主义and formalism形式主义:
Functionlism or functional linguistics refers to the study of forms of language in reference to their social function in communication.
Formalism or formal linguistics is the study of the abstract forms of language and their internal relations. It fixes in the forms of languages as evidence of the universals without considering how these forms function in communication and the ways of social life in different communities.
Chapter 2 Phonetics & Phonology
1. Speech sounds
Sounds which are systematically声音系统used in human languages are called speech sounds. Sounds made by a human being but not used in language are not considered as speech sounds (coughing, snoring打鼾, sneezing打喷嚏).
2. Phonetics
2.1 What is phonetics? (p.25)
The study of the speech sounds that occur in all human languages.
It is the science which studies the characteristics of human sound making, particularly the sounds used in speech, and provides methods for their transcription, description and classification分类.
Three areas of phonetics: (p.26)
? Articulatory phonetics (发音语音学): production of speech sounds生产语音
? Auditory phonetics (听觉语音学): perception of speech sounds感知的语音
? Acoustic phonetics (声学语音学):
physical properties of speech sounds物理特性的语音
2.2 Speech organs (p.27)
1- nasal鼻骨cavity腔 2- lips嘴唇 3- teeth牙齿
4- alveolar ridge牙槽嵴 5- hard palate硬腭 6- velum软腭(soft palate) 7- uvula小舌
8- apex顶点(tip) of tongue 9- blade刀锋(front前) of tongue 10- dorsum背部(back) of tongue 11- oral cavity口腔 12- pharynx咽
13- epiglottis会厌；喉头盖 14- larynx喉头 15- vocal cords声带 16- trachea气管 17- esophagus食道
Division of vocal organs:
According to the function in the sound production, the vocal organs发声器can be divided into three parts: initiator发起人of the air-stream, the producer of voice and the resonator.共鸣器
2.2.1 The initiator of the air-stream:
(1) The initiator includes the lungs肺and the trachea气管; (2) The direction of the airstream气流:
? outgoing/ pulmonic肺的: in all languages
? Non-pulmonic sounds与肺无关的声音: ejectives (挤喉音), clicks (吸气音), implosives
(内爆音in Sindhi信德语, Igbo伊博人)
2.2.2 The vocal cords声带(the producer of voice)
(1) Pitch音高depends on the rate of vibration振动of the vocal cords. (2) Vocal cords:
? Complete blockage堵塞(totally closed) for producing glottal喉音stop [?]:[? eni] [? idi?t] ? Vibrating振动(close together) to produce voiced sounds: [m] [b] [g] [z] [e] [i] ? Not vibrating (apart) to produce voiceless sounds: [p] [h] [t]
2.2.3 Three resonators (amplifier扩音器and modifier调节器)
(1) Pharyngeal cavity (咽腔) (2) Nasal cavity鼻腔 (3) Oral cavity口腔
? active主动的；有效的articulators发音之人或物: lips, uvular(小舌), the tongue ? Passive被动的，消极的articulators: teeth, alveolar (齿龈), palate (硬颚)
2.3 IPA国际音标and broad and narrow transcription音译
2.3.1 IPA
? International Phonetic Alphabet国际音标
? International Phonetic Association (1886)国际语音学学会
2.3.2 Phonetic transcription标音法:
The method of writing down the speech sounds in a systematic and consistent way.
2.3.3 Broad and narrow transcription
? Broad transcription: [ ] the use of a simple set of symbols in our transcription.
? Narrow transcription: [ ] the use of more specific symbols to show more phonetic detail. Examples:
Narrow transcription: [ ]
pure[phwju?] :
aspirated送气音的labialized被唇音化的palatalized使颚音化 bed[be·d] slightly long farm[f?:m] nasalized使鼻音化 apple [`?p?] velarized使软腭化 bacon [`bei?n] glottal stop喉塞音 Broad transcription: [ ] pure[pju?]
2.4 Classification of English speech sounds (p.31)
2.4.1 Consonants 辅音(p.32)
Consonants are the sounds in the production of which there is an obstruction阻碍of airstream at some point in the vocal tract声道. 2.4.1.1 Place of articulation发音部位 2.4.1.2 Manner of articulation发音方法 2.4.1.3 Voicing发言；牵动声带
2.4.1.4 Description of consonants辅音的描述