7． 从句引导词（讲义 19 36） ①从句引导词：代词性：在从句中做成分，代词+不完整句 who / whom / that / which / how many
形容词：whose / how much / how many *在句中不做成分，ad+完整句 ad.：if / because / why / when…
that即是代词性，也是副词性引导词 *that的用法： a）that ⑴关系代词用于定从，在从句中做主语或者宾语。 …n.+that+不完整句 ⑵连接副词，用于主从，宾从，表从和同位语从句。在从句中不做成分 …that+完整句 b）that省略 ⑴在定从中，that做主语可以省略。That+be可以省略。 ⑵在宾从中，某些及物动词后可省：say/
see/know /here /think /believe /betold /understand / propose / hear ②prep+which+不完整句 X prep+what+完整句X when+n（孤立）X n+what X whose +v. X where+v. X ③状语从句引导词+完整句 ④介词+which+完整句
连接副词（that）+完整句 ⑤如果先行词中有序数词、最高级、不定代词、only中，只用that不用which
8． 从句：从句是主句的一个句子成分，从句=从句引导词+句子，从句引导词表明从句的位置。㈠主语从句：从句是主句的一个主语 sub clause+v+obj
从句引导词+句子+v+obj → 标准形式
That TOEFL is a piece of cake is known to all. ㈡宾语从句：从句是主语的宾语 主语+谓语+从句
sub+vt+从句引导词+句子→ 标准形式 We known that TOEFL is a piece of cake. ㈢表语从句：从句是主句的一个表语 主+系+表
sub+系动词+从句引导词+句子→ 标准形式 The fact is that TOEFL is a piece of cake. ㈣状语从句：从句是主句的一个状语 状语。Svo.
从句引导词+句子，句子.→ 标准形式
*引导词决定句子的性质,如if是条件从句,when是时间从句等. ㈤同位语从句：从句是主语的同位语 主语+谓语+宾语+从句 完整句
sub+vt+obj(n.)+从句引导词（ad）+句子→ 标准形式（宾同） We know the fact that TOEFL is a piece of cake.
㈥定语从句：从句是主句的一个定语（以宾语定语为例） s+v+n+从句引导词（代词）+不完整句→ 标准相识
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We know the fact that is not known to Jerry.
四、介词（讲义33-43） 1、through / throughout
through 穿过（某一具体物体）：through the earth 通过（某一具体方式）：through x-ray analysis
throughout +时间：贯穿 throughout his lifetime/their existense +地点：遍布 throughout the world =all over the world = all across the world
2、between / among
the distance between the stars / trees. √ distance表示两者的距离
among the two separate realms. X among三个/三个以上之间
3．In / inside / into → 动态的，强调动作、过程 air into a house X→ air in a house
shot arrows inside the sky X → shot arrows into the sky in/inside表示静态的，强调的状态 into commerve X → in commerve
4．In / for / since （与时态有关） in：时刻点 in 1979 过去时
时间段 in recent years （完成时）/ in two days（将来时） for：介词+一段时间：for three years （完成时，过去时） 连词： 自从，因为
并列连词：不位于句首，句子，for+句子
since：介词+时刻点：since 1954（完成时）“自从” 连词：自从
因为（常考）+原因状语从句 since+句子，句子
副词：与完成时连用，表从过去的某个时间或某个事件至今 与过去时连用=ago
Tom died many years since… √
5．of考法：多余、遗漏、误用：A common use with gold is…X with→ of prep → of , of → prep.
With强调某种工具的使用，of强调所有关系
6．by be done by 被动语态的标志 by doing通过…方才…
作品by作者 / 电影by导演 / 研究by研究人员
7． 固定搭配（3-4个）
五、动词（讲义44-73）
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㈠谓语动词
1． 主谓一致（与插入语无关）
1主谓的分隔原则：主谓之间可以用定语从句或者省略的定语从句分隔。 s1→vo
2定语从句中的主谓一致：…n1+that+v …,one of +n(pl)+that+v(sing) / v(pl) 通常 …,the only one+n.(pl)+that+v(sing)
…,n1 of n2 +that+v(由动词发出者决定)
3随前一致：
n. + together with n2+v与n1&n2一致 as well as including along with with / of
accompanied with / by
4就近原则：n1 or n2 +v（就近原则） either n1 or n2 neither n1 nor n2
eg: He or we are… Is he or we…?
5可数n1 and 可数n2+v(pl) 不可数n1 and 不可数n2+v(pl)
例外：war and peace is… war and peace是一个整体
表示一个整体的两个名词例外，类似的还有：law and order bread and butter black and white To love and to be loved is … A lawyer and a teacher are… A lawyer and teacher is …
6随后原则：not A but B / not only A but also B+v.(与B一致)
7百分比结构：most , half , rest , some , majority , one+persent of+n1+v.（由n1决定） 数词与谓动无关
8倒装结构的主谓一致：
a）There be +n 由名词决定动词
b）Among , between等介词位于句首引起倒装结构： Among / Between …+系动词+n. （由名词决定动词）
9The+adj的主谓一致：
a）当表示“一类人”，则+v(pl) The rich are always ridiculous,
b）当表示某一抽象概念时，则+v(sing) The good is always attractive.
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10To do/doing/主从+v(sing) *More than one+n(sing)+v(sing) many a +n.(sing)+v(sing) a day or two +v(sing)
news不可数，抽象 economics不可数，学科 mumps不可数 species由句意决定draughts不可数，跳棋
2． 谓语动词的时态与语态：
时态：一般现在时，一般过去时，现在完成时 prep(in/for/since)→时间→时态→动词形式
矛盾（考点） 语态问题：：只考陈述句，情态动词在TOEFL中永远对，嘘拟语气在TOEFL中也不太考。 *89-96年的虚拟语气共考过4次：（新题 P91 10 P65 10） sub+insist / require +that +s+v
sub+make +it+impertive that+sub+v
主被动语态是TOEFL中的重点：句意，by，动词用法。（讲义P3 61）在TOEFL中have done by一定错
3． 常考的谓语动词：（讲义 58） ①常考主动态的动词：prove: vt+obj / vi+to be +n. / adj. eg: My advice proved to be wrong. √ (主动表被动)
prove / seem / occur / take place / rank / range / weigh / measure / date(date back to)…都是主动表被动 ②常考被动态动词：（讲义 59） *locat在TOEFL中常考被动
eg: Bats can locat the obstacles. “确立…位置” My school is located near a river.“位于” *concerned be ~ with compose be ~ of
compared be ~ to / with 在TOEFL中to/with一样 noted be ~ for based be ~ on
known be ~ for / as / to
eg: Li Ao is known for his books. Li Ao is know as a writer. Li Ao is know to us.
decicated be ~ to do 被用于…、被题词… / to doing 致力于…事业中 credited be ~ with（因）（被认为）导致了…/有利于…（果） for
to （果）归功于…，归因于…（因） called be ~ … ③主动=被动的词：
hatc=be hatched feed on=be fed on face=be faced with need/want/require need doing=need to be done’ ④情感动词：（讲义 60）
please annoy move surprise 都有“使…”的意思 please:主动：be ~ing （物）使人高兴的
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sht be ~ing
被动：be ~ed （人）被使得高兴 sb be ~ed
move: Franklin is so moved. The story is so moving.
㈡非谓语动词
1．现在分词与过去分词的区别： 主动 被动→后置定语/状语→90% 进行 完成→前置定语 →10% 动作 状态→不考
eg: the boiled water 开水 the boiling point 沸点
2．现在分词与过去分词的用法： ⑴可以位于句首/句末做状语，正确与否取决于主被动 句首：Doing…, svo. 主动 （讲义 66） Done…, svo. 被动
句末：svo, doing… 主动 （讲义 65） svo,done… 被动 ⑵可以位于名词后，做后置定语修饰名词，且等同于定语从句。正确与否取决于主被动
n+doing… 主动 （讲义 58） … people claming to… 主动 n+done… 被动 （讲义 58） … reports received … 被动 eg: the sites occupied by early human… 被动 *常考的+doing的动词：
mean enjoy finish mind celebrate forgive tolerate suggest advocate quit delay avoid escape spend be capable of play a key role in keep/prevent from have difficulty in have trouble/a hard time/a problem in
3．关于不定式的省略用法： ⑴help to do = help do help sb to do = help sb do ⑵使役动词：let make have bid后的inf必须省to
let sb do make sb do have sb do have sth done bid sb do sth吩咐… 做… ⑶感官动词：see watch notice heat后的inf必须省to see sb do sth see sb doing be seen to do/be seen doing 被动
4． Inf固定用法： ⑴做某事的“第一人”：the first sb to do ⑵（讲义 68）表“允许”“迫使”的动词后接inf
allow sb to do permit sb to do force sb to do cause sb to do enable sb to do
allow the fruite to ripen
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