family has nothing to do with either of the versions. A close examination of its definition in an English-English dictionary sheds light on this phrase: nuclear family, a family group that consists only of father, mother and children. Therefore, the proper rendering of the phrase should be words to this effect: a cozy small family, namely, the Chinese equivalent \小家庭\
Original English 2 :
Mao Tse-tung was well bred, but inside he was made of steel, of hard resistance, of tough tissue—the kind of tissue the Boxers thought they had by magic, and bared their solar plexuses to foreign bullets.(ibid. )
Chinese Version A:
毛泽东有很好的教养，内部是钢，有坚强的抗力，是坚韧的材料制成的。这是义和团设想的由于神力具有的，可以把腹部袒胸给外国人的子弹的那种材料。 Chinese Version B:
毛泽东教养有素，精神支柱铁铸钢打，不怕高压，是由坚韧的组织构成的。这 种组织，就是义和拳认为他们通过魔法得到的那种组织袒胸露体，刀枪不入。
Comment:
The word \hardly be rendered into Chinese either in literal translation or free translation，nor could the metaphor \he was made of steel\be properly rendered without grasping the essence of the whole sentence. However，since there is no corresponding expressions in Chinese, the translators tackle them according to their own understanding. Inversion A，\is freely rendered as \材料\(material)，while version B literally as\组织\—both fail to convey the original meaning and attitude of the writer. By adopting translation skills such as amplification, omission，conversion and restructuring，we may translate the original English sentence as follows:
Revised Version:
毛泽东外表温文尔雅，但内心深处却钢铸铁打，既坚韧，又抗压—在他的身上可以看到当年义和团自信所具有的那种神力，面对洋枪洋炮也敢袒胸露怀。
From the above analysis, we come to the conclusion that there is no obvious distinction between literal translation and free translation, nor is it necessary to distinguish one from the other. The key point for a translator to grasp is to comprehend the original thoroughly, and then put it into idiomatic Chinese. In the process of translation, specific approaches such as literal or free translation may be of some help, but we should avoid the two extremes. In the application of literal translation, we should endeavor to rid ourselves of stiff patterns and rigid adherence to translation rules, trying to be flexible; while in the practice of free translation, we
should be cautious of subjectivity, avoiding groundless affirmation or arbitrary fabrication. Whatever the circumstances, we may alternate or combine these two approaches when it is necessary.
7. Omission
Omission is a technique opposite to amplification. True, a translator has no right to subtract any meaning from the original work. But it does not follow that he should refrain from omitting any words at all in translation. In fact, one of the marked differences in syntax between English and Chinese is the disparity in wording. What is regarded as a natural or indispensable element in one language may be regarded as superfluous or even \stumbling block\in the other. Take the following English sentence and its Chinese version for example:
Original English: The time-keeping devices of electronic watches are much more accurate than those of mechanical ones. Chinese Version: 电子表比机械表准确得多。
A comparison between the Chinese version with the English original shows that many of the \English words have been omitted in the Chinese translation, otherwise, the Chinese sentence would sound wordy and unnatural. Therefore, a manipulation of the technique \is always called for in English-Chinese translation. On the other hand, some Chinese sentences, when translated into English, also need to be rid of redundant wording so as to conform to idiomatic English expressions.
8. Conversion
Conversion, one of the commonly adopted translation techniques, means the change of parts of speech in translation. Owing to the syntactical differences between English and Chinese, it is usually impossible for a translator to keep to the original part of speech in the process of translation. For example:
Original English: This watch never varies more than a second in a month. Chinese Version: 这块表一个月的误差从不超过一秒钟。
The English verb \can hardly be rendered into Chinese by the same part of speech without spoiling the original meaning. As a matter of fact, a word belonging to a certain part of speech in one language sometimes has to be converted into a different part of speech, so as to bring forth a readable and coherent sentence.
9. Restructuring
Restructuring, as one of the translation techniques, means the necessary or inevitable change of word order in a sentence according to the usage of the language to be translated into. It is also called rearrangement or inversion.
10. Hypotactic vs. Paratactic (形合与意合)
Hypotaxis (形合法) is the dependent or subordinate construction or relationship of clauses with connectives, for example, I shall despair if you don't come. English sentence building is featured by hypotaxis.
Parataxis(意合法)is the arranging of clauses one after the other without connectives Showing the relation between them, for example, The rain fell; the river flooded; the house washed away. Chinese sentence building is featured by parataxis.
11. Foreignizing Translation and Domesticating Translation
(1). Foreignizing Translation
Foreignizing translation lays great emphasis on retaining the cultural flavors of the source language and enables the reader to have an alien reading experience, thus developing the reader's awareness of cultural differences. To promote cultural exchange and mutual understanding between peoples of different languages and cultures, foreignizing translation is a far better choice than domesticating translation. In this way we can better understand the source-language culture and enrich Chinese modes of expression. The weakness of foreignization is that the culture-specific expressions thus translated may not be familiar to our readers or smooth enough for us to read with ease. In this case, a semantic translation or an explanatory note may be added. However, what is unfamiliar at present may gradually become familiar as more and more intercultural communications take place, or as people read more and more such translated expressions. Here we are reminded of a much quoted saying by Lu Xun:
翻译必须有异国情调，就是所谓洋气。其实世界上也不会有完全归化的译文，倘有，就是貌合神离，从严辨别起来，它算不得翻译。凡是翻译，必须兼顾着两面，一当然力求其易解，一则保存着原作的丰姿，但这保存，却又常常和易懂相矛盾：看不惯了。不过它原是洋鬼子，当然谁也看不惯，为比较的顺眼起见，只能改换它的衣裳，却不该削低它的鼻子，剜掉它的眼睛。（《鲁迅全集》第6卷，348页）
and also a quotation from Mao Zedong:
要从外国语言中吸收我们所需要的成分。我们不是硬搬或滥用外国语言，是要吸收外国语言中的好东西，于我们适用的东西。因为中国原有语汇不够用，现在我们的语汇中就有很多是从外国吸收来的。例如今天开的干部大会，这“干部”两个字，就是从外国学来的。我们还要多多吸收外国的新鲜东西，不但要吸收他们的进步道理，而且要吸收他们的新鲜用语。（《反对党八股》）
It should be noted that skilful foreignizing translation, which may involve the techniques of necessary addition or omission, does not mean word-for-word or mechanical translation which disregards the original implication, the constraints of Chinese usage (linguistic and cultural), and the acceptability of our readers. Examples:
1). arm to the teeth
武装到牙齿 (cf. 全副武装) 2). crocodile tears
鳄鱼的眼泪 (cf. 猫哭老鼠假慈悲) 3). Beauty lies in the lover's eyes.
情人眼里出美人 (cf. 情人眼里出西施)
4). In the country of the blind, the one-eyed man is King. 盲人国里，独眼人称王 (cf. 蜀中无大将，廖化作先锋) 5). as gay (cheerful) as a lark
像云雀那样快活(cf.兴高采烈)
e.g. Ha, ha! We should be as gay as larks, Mr. Richard — why not? (C. Dickens:
The Old Curiosity Shop)
6)．Sour grapes
酸葡萄(cf.把得不到的东西说成是不好的)
e.g. But because we cannot satisfy the desires of our hearts - why should we cry
\
7). Pandora's box
潘多拉的盒子 (cf. 灾难和罪恶的来源) 8). Judas kiss
犹大之吻 (cf.虚伪的好意) 9). teach a pig to play on a flute 教猪吹笛 (cf. 对牛弹琴)
10). flog a dead horse 鞭打死马 (cf.做无用功；白费口舌)
11). a dark horse 黑马 (cf. 出人意料的获胜者)
12). as easy as ABC 像ABC 字母一样简单 (cf. 非常容易)
13). ivory tower 象牙塔 (cf. 人们避免现实生活中烦恼的小天地) 14). Beauty is but skin-deep.
(谚语) 美貌只是一层皮(cf. 不可以貌取人) 15). Can the leopard change his spots?
(谚语)美洲豹岂能改变身上的花纹 (cf. 本性难移) 16). Trojan horse
(谚语) 特洛伊木马 (cf. 诡计；隐患；从内部进行颠覆破坏的人) 17). Never offer to teach fish to swim.
(谚语) 不要教鱼游泳 (cf. 不要班门弄斧) 18). look for a needle in a haystack 在草堆里找针 (cf. 海底捞针) 19). a stick-and-carrot policy
大棒加胡萝卜政策(cf.软硬兼施；恩威并用) 20). domino effect
多米诺骨牌效应 (cf.连锁反应) 21). John is her office Romeo.
约翰是她办公室里的罗迷欧(cf. 办公室里的男情人) 22). sandwich man
三明治式广告宣传员 (cf. 身前身后挂着标语牌的广告宣传员)
In foreignizing translation, a paraphrase or an explanation, if necessary, may be added to the unfamiliar expression or a footnote may be placed at the end of the translation, so as to make the English culture-loaded expression comprehensible to our readers:
e.g. It was another one of those Catch-22 situations, you're damned if you do and you're damned if you don't.
这真是又一个如同军规第二十二条的尴尬局面：做也倒霉，不做也倒霉，令人左右为难。
注:：Catch-22 situation 源自美国小说家 Joseph Heller 于1961 年出版的小说《 第二十二条军规》（Catch-22)。该条军规规定：飞行员如果觉得自己神经不正常，可以获准不执行飞行任务，但必须提出申请并得到批准。但同时该军规又规定：如果飞行员因此提出申请，则充分证明该飞行员能意识到面临着无法克服的困难，头脑清醒，神经正常，因此不得豁免飞行任务。这是一条自相矛盾、无法执行的规定。
(2). Domesticating Translation
Domesticating translation minimizes the foreignness of the source-language text by changing heterogeneous elements into what is familiar to the target-language reader. This method of \means replacing the English culture-loaded expression by its Chinese equivalent, which may be similar in form and same in meaning (形似意同) or different in form but same in meaning (形异意同), to minimize the strangeness of the English expression by adopting a fluent, natural-sounding Chinese style for our readers' preferences. Domestication is usually employed when the translator believes that the original cultural flavor is widely different from Chinese culture and therefore too difficult for our readers to understand.
Both at present and in history, the domesticating strategy seems to have been dominant in China, for reviewers and publishers tend to lay great emphasis on readability of the translated text, which coincides with the taste of the general reader.