Chapter 1 Invitations to linguistics 1.2 what is language
Language is a system of arbitrary vocal symbols for human communication 1.3 design features of language
arbitrariness: there is no connection between the words; sound and its meaning duality: the property of having two levels of structures
creativity(productivity): users can produce sentences they have never heard before. Its potential to create endless sentences by recursiveness.
displacement: language can be used to refer to the context removed from the immediate situation of the speakers.
cultural transmission: language is passed o through teaching and learning , rather than by instinct. 1.4 origin of language
The bow-wow theory: imitate the sounds of animal
The pooh-pooh theory: instinctive sounds of joy, ager and pain The yo-he-ho theory: rhythmic grunts produced when working 1.5 functions of language
1.5.1 the main functions of language:
Descriptive functions: cognitive or referential or propositional function. Primary function of language. , to convey factual information
Expressive function: emotive or attitudinal function, supplies users’ feelings, preferences, prejudices, and values.
Social function: interpersonal function, serves to establish and maintain social relations between people 1.5.2 according to Jakobson: Emotive: addresser 表达情感 Conative: addressee 导致动作的发生 Referential: context描述客观事实 Poetic: message语言本身的美
Phatic communication: contact建立社会关系
Metalinguistic: code make clear the meaning of language itself 1.5.3 according to Halliday this system contains three macrofunctions
Ideational: to organize the speaker or writer’s experience of the real or imaginary world. 达意功能指组织说
话者或作者现实或虚伪世界的体验，即语言指称实际或虚伪的人，物，动作，事件，状态等
Interpersonal: to indicate, establish or maintain social relationships between people.人际功能表明，建立，或维持人与人之间的社会关系，包括称谓形式，情感，语言功能等。
Textual function: to organize written or spoken texts in such a manner that they are coherent within themselves and fit the particular situation in which they are used.组篇功能指组成书面或或口头的语篇，这些语篇内部连贯，并适用于所用的特定场景。 1.6 what is linguistics: The scientific study of language 1.9 important distinctions in linguistics
Descriptive：aims to describe and analyze the language people actually use . describe how things are Prescriptive: 规范性aims to lay down rules for correct and standard behavior in using language, to tell people what they should say and what they should not say
Synchronic: the description of a language at some point of time Diachronic: the description of a language at a period of time
Speech：is prior to writing , and it plays a more important role in terms of information Writing: should be taught and learned in schools
Langue: an abstract linguistic system shared by all members of speech community Parole: the realization of langue in actual use
Competence：the ideal users’s knowledge of his rules of his language
Performance: the actual realization of this knowledge in linguistic communication. Traditional grammar: is prescriptive and tend to emphasize the importance of written word Modern grammar: descriptive, regard spoken language as primary, not the written.
Chapter 2 Speech sounds
Phonetics: the study of speech sounds, the production, transmission and perception of speech sounds.
Phonology: it aims to discover how speech sounds in a language form patterns and how these sounds are used to convey meaning in linguistic communication. It studies sound patterns, how sounds are combined together. The study od speech sounds is divided into three main areas,each dealing with one part of the process.
1).Articulatory phonetics: the study of the production of speech sounds.发音语音学 2).Acoustic phonetics: the study of the physical properties of speech sounds声学语音学
3).Perceptual or auditory phonetics: is concerned with the perception of speech sounds.听觉语音学 2.3 phone, phoneme, allophone
Phone: is a phonetic unit or segment. The speech sounds that we hear and produce during linguistic communication are all phones. Individual sounds as they occur in speech.
Phoneme：the smallest unit of sound in a language which can distinguish two words. is a phonological unit; it is an abstract unit. It is not any particular sound, but rather it is represented or realized by a certain phone in a certain phonetic context.
Allophone: any of the different forms of a phoneme. the different phones which can represent a phoneme in different phonetic environment are called allophone 2.4 consonants
Consonants: are speech sounds where obstruction of airstream is blocked somewhere in the mouth or throat to different degrees, voiced or voiceless.
Vowels: are speech sounds which the airstream from the lungs is not blocked in any way in the mouth or throat, and which is usually pronounced with vibration of the vocal cords, too. no obstruction, voiced 2.5 suprasegmental features
The phonetic features that occur above the level of the segments are called suprasegmental features Syllable: a unit in speech which is often longer than one sound and smaller than a whole word. The syllable structure
Stress: it refers to the degree of force used in producing a syllable 1) at the word level: the location of stress in english distinguishes meaning 2) At the sentence level: the relative force given to the components of a sentence.
Tone: pitch variation, which are caused by the differing rates of vibration of the vocal cords.
Intonation: when pitch, stress and sound length are tied to the sentence rather than the word in isolation, they are collectively known as intonation. 补充：
1.Sequential rules: the rules that govern the combination of sounds in a particular language
2.phonemic contrast: if they are two distinctive phonemes, they are said to form a phonetic contrast单个音的关系，属于不同的phoneme
Complementary distribution: the allophones are said to be in complementary distribution变体之间是互补的
关系
Minimal pair：音串 eg: kill till bill will
Chapter 3 Lexicon 词典
3.1.3 closed-class words and open-class words
Closed-class : is one whose membership is fixed or limited, such as pronouns, prepositions, conjunctions, articles and others.
Open-class: is one whose membership is in principle infinite or unlimited. 3.2 the formation of word 3.2.1 morpheme and morphology
Morpheme : the minimal units of meaning. A morpheme cannot be divided without altering or destroying its meaning.
Morphology: the part of he grammar that is concerned with word formation and word structure. The systematic study of morpheme 3.2.2 types of morpheme
1) free morpheme: a morpheme which can be a word by itself Bound morpheme: a morpheme that must be attached to another one
2)root: the base form of a word that cannot be further be analyzed without destroying its meaning. 词根 Affix: a collective term for the type of morpheme that can be used only when added to another morpheme(the root or stem), so affix is naturally bound. 词缀
Stem: is any morpheme or combination of morphemes to which an inflectional affix can be added.
3)inflectional affix(inflectional morpheme): 屈折词素 less productive than derivational morpheme , they serve to produce different forms of a single lexeme词位, such as friends, boys; do not change the word class of the word they attach to; are mostly suffixes, which are always word final, 给的单词添加词缀或根据语言的语法规则以其他方式改变词形的过程，the process of adding an affix to a word or changing it in some way according to the rules of the grammar of a language.
Derivational affix(Derivational morpheme): 派生词素 very productive in making new words, such as recite-recitation; change the lexical meaning; both be prefixes and suffixes,such as online, suburban, slaver, teacher.将词缀加入其他单词或词素以构成新词的方法 the formation of new words by adding affixes to
other words or morphemes.
3.2.3 inflection: indicates grammatical relations by adding inflectional affixes, such as number, person, aspect, etc
Word formation: the process of how words are formed. Can be further divided into two sub-types 1) compound(compositional type): those words that consist of ore than one lexical morpheme, or the way to
join two separate words to produce a single form, such as sunrise, paperbag
2) derivation(derivational type): shows a relationship between roots and affixes. Such as unconscious,
national; can make the word class of the original word either changed or unchanged 3.2.4
Sememe: the smallest component of meaning Morpheme: the smallest meaningful unit in grammar Phoneme: the smallest meaningful unit of sound Allomorph: different forms of a morpheme 3.3 lexical change 3.3.1 lexical change proper
Coinage(invention): many new lexical items are cioned outright to fit some purposes; come directly from technological and economic activities. Such as kodak, ylon, coke
Clipped word(abbreviation): some words are the abbreviations of longer words or phrases. Such as exam-examination, fridge-refridgerator
Blending: some words are formed by combining some part of words. Such as smog-smoke fog, brunch-lunch breakfast
Acronyms: some words are the initial part of several words. Such as CEO
Back-formation: an unusually abnormal type of word-formation where a shorter word is derived by delecting an imagined affix from a longer form already in the language. Such as gangling-gangle, editor-edit
Analogical creation: the coexistence of two forms, regular and irregular, in the combination of some english verbs.
Borrowing: when two culture come to contact, the word may be borrowed from one country to another one. Such as testa, coconut, tea 3.3.2 morpho-syntactical change 1)morphological change 2)syntactical change