honesty and sincerity are key points to mutual understanding Chapter 8 Language in use
Sentence meaning: includes word meaning and sentence structure; abstract and de-contextualized
Utterance meaning: the meaning a speaker conveys by using a particular utterance in a particular context situation; concrete ad contextualized. Semantics: the study of sentence meaning
Pragmatics: the study of utterance meaning, the study of how speakers of a language use sentences to effect successful communication. 8.1 speech act theory
Proposed by john Langshaw Austin 语言可以导致一个现象的发生或结束
8.1.1performatives: 行事话语, the statements that did not state a fact or describe a state, and were not verifiable
Constatives: 陈述话语the statements what either state or describe, and were thus verifiable
8.1.2 theory of the illocutionary act: 行事行为using a sentence to perform a function; expressing the speaker’s intension
Locutionary act: 发话行为the act of conveying literal meaning by means of syntax, lexicon and phonology Perlocutionary act: 取效行为is the result or effects that are produced by means of saying something. 补充：Searle’s classification of speech acts: share the same illocutionary point, but differ in strength
1)representatives/assertives: 阐述类stating or describing , saying what the speaker believes to be true. I have never seen the man before
2)directive: 指令类trying to get the hearer to do something Open the door
3)commissives: 承诺类committing the speaker himself to some future course of action I promise to come
4)expressive: 表情类expressing feelings or attitude towards an existing state I’m sorry for the mass I have made
5)declarations: 宣告类bringing about immediate changes by saying something I fire you
8.2 the theory of conversational implicature
8.2.1 cooperative principle: the co-operation between speakers by using the conversational maxim Four categories of maxims:
The maxim of quantity: make your contribution as informative as required; do not make your contribution more informative than is required
The maxim of quality: do not say what you believe to be false; do not say that for which you lack adequate evidence
The maxim of relation: be relevant
The maxim of manner: avoid obscurity of expression; avoid ambiguity; be brief; be orderly 8.2.2 violations of maxims
8.2.3 characteristics of implicature蕴意
1) calculability: 可计算性implicatures can be worked out on the basis of some previous information 2)cancellability/defeasibility:可剔除性
John has three cows john has only three cows 3)non-detachability：非可分离性
John’s a genius john’s a mental prodigy john’s a big brain 4）non-conventionality: 非规约性 I saw a boy I saw a child 8.3 post-Gricean developments 8.3.1 relevance theory 8.3.2 the Q-and-R-principles 8.3.3the Q-,I-and M-principles Chapter 9 Language and literature
9.2 some general features of the literary language 9.2.1 foregrounding and the grammatical form 9.2.2 literal language and figurative language
Literal language: the first meaning for a word that a dictionary definition gives 1) similie: 明喻 eg: the world is like a stage 2) metaphor:隐喻 eg: all the world is a stage
3) synecdoche: using the name of the part of an object to talk about the whole thing, and vice versa提喻,部
分指代整体
9.2.3 the analysis of literary language 9.3 the language in poetry 9.3.1 sound patterning
9.3.2 different forms of sound patterning Rhyme 韵律，韵脚 Alliteraion Assonance谐音 Consonance和音
Reverse rhyme颠倒的调子 Pararhyme侧押韵 Repetition重复
9.3.3 stress and metrical patterning 9.3.4 conventional forms of metre and sound Couplets对联 Quatrains四行诗 Blank verse无韵诗
9.3.5 the phonetic functions of sound and metre 9.3.6 how to analyze poetry 9.4 the language in fiction
9.4.1 fictional prose and point of view I-narrators:第一人称
Third-person narrators: 第三人称 Schema-oriented language: Given vs new information: Deixix: speaker-related
9.4.2 speech and thought presentation 1)speech presentation: Direct speech: 直接引语 Indirect speech:间接引语
Free indirect thought: 自由间接引语(free indirect speech)是叙事里叙述者再现人物的语言或思想时把人物的表达与自己的表达融合起来的一种说话方式
Stream of consciousness writing: 意识流文学泛指注重描绘人物意识流动状态的文学作品，既包括清醒的意识，更包括无意识、梦幻意识和语言前意识。 9.4.3 prose style
Authorial style: 权威风格 Text style: 文本样式
9.4.4 how to analyze the language of fiction 9.5 the language in drama
9.5.1 how should we analyze drama? Drama as poetry/fiction/conversation 9.5.2 analysing dramatic language 1) turn quantity and length 2) exchange sequence 3) production errors
4) the cooperative principle—by philosopher grice 5) status marked through language
6) register: 语域 field/语场tenor语旨/mode 语式of discourse 7) speech and silence
9.6 the cognitive approach to literature 9.6.1 theoretical background Three cognitive tools:
Figure and ground: the prominence of the “figure” is important. A figure can be a character, location, or thing and is often new or in motion and is thus prominent
Image schemata: 意象图示 can be loosely described as being the recurring patterns of our everyday perceptual interactions and bodily experience.
“图示”在古希腊哲学家眼中被视为一种固定的模板（fixed templates）。康德认为“图示”是连接感知和概念的纽带。英国心理学家F.Bartlett发现：人的记忆能够把各种信息和经验组织成认知结构，形成常规图示，储存于人们的记忆之中，新的经验可通过与其对比而被理解。皮亚杰则运用“图示观”来论述他的发生心理学和建构论思想，认为“图示来源于动作”
“意象”常作为心理学术语，多指一种心理表征。指人在某物不在场时但在心智中还能想象得出该物的形象，这是在没有外界具体实物刺激输入的情况下，人在心智中依旧能够获得其印象的一种认知能力。 意象图示是在对事物之间基本关系的认知的基础上所构成的认知结构，是人类经验和理解中一种联系抽象关系和具体意象的组织结构，是反复出现的对知识的组织形式，是理解和认知更复杂概念的基本结构，人的经验和知识是建立在这些基本结构和关系之上的
意象图示不是具体的形象，而是抽象的认知结构。它已脱离了具体的、丰富的形象，而是一种只包含少
数构成成分和简单关系的结构，是非命题的抽象结构。 Cognitive metaphor
Chapter 10 Language and computer
Computer linguistics: can be seen as a brach of applied linguistics,dealing with computer processing of human language
10.1 computer-assisted language learning(CALL)计算机辅助语言教学 10.1.1 CAI/CAL vs CALL
CAI: computer-assisted instruction计算机辅助教学, the use of a computer in a teaching program, aims at seeing educational problems on the part of the teacher
CAL: computer-assisted learning计算机辅助学习, emphasizes the use of a computer in both teaching and learning in order o help the learners to achieve educational objectives through their own reasoning and practice, a reflection of newly advocated autonomous learning.
CALL: computer-assisted language learning, deals with language teaching and learning in particular.; especially refers to the use of computer in the teaching or learning of a second or foreign language. 10.1.2 phases of CALL development
1) during this period, computers were large mainframe machines kept in research institutions 2) small computers appeared and cost cheaper than before
3) the learning was not so much supplied by the language of the text itself as by the cognitive problem-solving techniques and by the interaction among students in a group
4) instead of written specific programs for language teaching, word-processing has adapted to language teaching by enabling students to compose and try out their own writings in a non-permanent form. 10.1.3 technology
Customizing定制 , template模板, and authoring programs程序编写 Computer networks
Compact disk technology光盘科技 Digitized sound声音数码化 USB
10.2 machine translation (MT)计算机翻译
The use of machine to translate texts from one natural language to another