3.3.3 semantic change
1) broadening: a process to extend or elevate the meaning from its originally specific sense to a relatively general one. Holiday
2) arrowing: the original meaning of a word can be narrowed or restricted to a specific sense. Meat 3) meaning shift: marshal 马夫-元帅 4) class shift:
5) folk etymology: the change of the from of a word od phrase. 3.3.4 phonological change: changes in sound leading to changes in form
1)loss: refer to the disappearance of the very sound as a phoneme in the phonological system 2) addition: sounds may also be added to the original sound sequence. Strike-sutoraiki
3) metathesis: a process involving a change in the sequence of sounds Bird-brid
3) assimilation: 同化 3.3.5 orthographic change: Vp-up sunne-sun sate-sat
Chapter 4 From word to text
Syntax: the study of how word combine to form sentences and the rules which govern the formation of sentences
4.1 syntactic relations
4.1.1 positional relation: sequential arrangement of words in a language Syntagmatic relation: (F de Saussure)横组合关系 Horizonal relation Chain relation
4.1.2 relation of substitutability
1)the relationship that linguistic units have with others that could be substituted for them in the sentence Saussure: associative relations(联想关系) Hjemslev: paradigmatic relations(纵聚合关系) Vertical/choice relations(垂直选择关系)
4.1.3 relation of co-occurrence: the words of different sets of clauses may permit , or require, the occurrence of a word of another set or class to form a sentence or a particular part of a sentence 4.2 grammatical construction and its constituents 4.2.1 grammatical construction: any syntactic construct
External syntax of a construction: the property of the construction as a whole Internal syntax of a construction: a description of the constructions’s make-up 4.2.1 immediate constituents
Constituents: a term used in structural sentence analysis for every linguistic unit, which is a part of a larger linguistic unit.
Immediate constituent analysis: IC analysis, proposed by American structuralist. The goal and consequence of IC analysis is to analyze a linguistic expression into a hierarchically defined series of constituents. 4.2.3 endocentric and exocentric constructions
4.2.3.1 endocentric: is one whose distribution is functionally equivalent to that of one or more of its constituents. There is definable center or head. These two oldest stone bridges Will be leaving Very late
Exocentric: the opposite of endocentric. Refers to a group of syntactically related words where none of the words is functionally equivalent to the group as a whole, no definable center or head The boy smiled He hid behind the door He kicked the ball John seemed angry
4.2.4 coordination and subordination
Coordinate construction: 并列结构，more than one head Girls and boys came, ate and left
Down the stairs and out the door beautiful and expensive Jane loves jim and jim loves jane Subordinate construction: one head
The three small children the book left on the shelf Will have been leaving hot beyond endurance
Complement clause: 补足语 I do not think you are right
Adjunct or adverbial clause: 状语从句 He cleaned the blackboard before I read the note Relative clause: 定语从句 The man I love must be responsible
4.3 syntactic function: shows the relationship between a linguistic form and other parts of the linguistic pattern in which it is used Subject: 主语 Predicate:谓语 Object:宾语
4.3.4 the relation between classes and functions A class item can perform several functions A function can be fulfilled by several classes
4.4 category: refers to classes and functions in its narrow sense. Eg: noun, verb, subject, predicate, noun phrase, etc, more specifically, it refers to the defining properties of these general units. The category of the noun, for example, include number, gender, case and countability; and of the verb, for example, aspect, voice, etc; 4.4.1 number: mostly a category of noun and pronoun Dog-dogs I wish-he wishes
4.4.2 gender: mostly a category of noun and pronoun Actor-actress waiter-waitress
4.4.3 case: a grammatical category that shows the function of the noun or noun phrase in a sentence.
4.4.4 agreement: the requirement that the forms of two or more words in a syntactic relationship should agree with each other in terms of some categories 4.5 phrase：短语 Clause: 从句
Dependent clause从属从句: because I was late, they went without me Independent clause独立子句: I love you and you love me Finite clause: 限定性从句 Non-finite clause：非限定性从句 Sentence: 句子
Simple sentence: 只有一个谓语 Compound sentence: 复合句、并列句 Complex sentence: 复杂句 4.6 recursiveness递归性
Coordination并列关系 and subordination主从关系
Conjoining合并 : refers to the process where one clause is coordinated or conjoined to another, and but or Embedding嵌入: refers to the means by which one clause is included in a sentence, eg：the man I love must be responsible
Hypotactic 主从结构，从属关系and paratactic并列的 4.7 beyond the sentence Text linguistics: 篇章语言学 Discourse analysis: 话语分析 4.7.1 sentential connection: Hypotactic relations: 从属关系
I don't like the party. So I won’t take part in it Paratactic relations: 并列关系 The door is open. 4.7.2 cohesion衔接
一种语义上的概念，衔接是“存在于语篇中并使之成为语篇的意义之间的联系 -Would you like an apple? -yes, I would like a small one.
Chapter 5 Meaning
Semantics: the study of meaning of linguistic units, words, and sentences in particular. 1. naming theory: words are just labels or names for things, which is proposed by Plato 2. conceptualism theory: semantic triangle
symbol(word):linguistic elements----------------------referent(object):the object in the world thought(concept) words—concept—objects
this theory relates words and things through the mediation of concepts of the mind
there is no direct link between a linguistic form and wha it refers to；rather in the interpretation of meaning that they are linked through the mediation of concepts in the mind. 3. contextualism(J.R forth)
we should know a word by the company it keeps; meaning is based on context. the meaning of a word is its use in language
situational context and linguistic context
4. behaviorism theory（Leonard Bloomfield）: refers to the situation in which the speaker utters it and the
response it calls forth in the hearer. Stimulus—language—response I’m thirsty
Stimulus—response-------stimulus—response 5.1 meaning of “meaning”
5.1.1 conceptual meaning: basic meaning
1) denotation: the entity which has the abstract properties; the object a word refers to 2) connotation: the abstract properties of the entity a word denotes 5.1.2 connotative meaning: implied meaning
5.1.3 social meaning: what is communicated of the social circumstances of language use 5.1.4 affective meaning: what is communicated of the feelings and attitudes of the speaker/writer
5.1.5 reflected meaning：what is communicated through association with another sense of the same expression. Human language is a tool of social intercourse.
5.1.6 collocative meaning: what is communicated through association with words which tend to occur in the environment of another word
He is a pretty man. She is a handsome girl.
5.1.7 thematic meaning: what is communicated by the way in which the message is organized in terms of order and emphasis.
My sister is at the door. At door is my sister 5.2 the referential theory所指理论
The theory of meaning which relates the meaning of a word to the thing it refers to , or stands for it
Sense: is concerned with the inherent meaning of linguistic form, the collection of all its features. The abstract properties.
Reference: what a linguistic form refers to in a real and physical world. The concrete entities having these