考试不作弊，放你妈的屁，考试不翻书，简直是头猪，作弊不要慌，逮到就装漭！
《语言学导论》复习思考题答案
1. A 2. A 3. C 4. D 5. D 6. B 7. C 8. D 9. C 10. C 11. A 12. D 13. C 14. D 15. A 16. B 17. D 18. C 19. A 20. B 21. A 22. B 23. C 24. C 25. D 26. D 27. D 28. C 29. A 30. D 31. C 32. B 33. C 34. B 35. D 36. B 37. D 38. B 39. D 40. C 41. B 42. D 43. C 44. B 45. D 46. C 47. B 48. A 49. C 50. D 51. C 52. C 53. D 54. B 55. C 56. A 57. D 58. B 59. A 60. D 61. B 62. C 63. D 64. C 65. B 66. D 67. A 68. D 69. D 70. D 71. B 72. A 73. C 74. D 75. C Part One
1. I 2. E 3. B 4. F 5. A 6. G 7. J 8. D 9. C 10. H Part Two
1. C 2. I 3. G 4. D 5. A 6. J 7. B 8. E 9. F 10. H Part Three
1. I 2. G 3. C 4. J 5. H 6. A 7. B 8. E 9. D 10. F Part Four
1. G 2. F. 3. D 4. I 5. H 6. J 7. C 8. E 9. A 10. B Part Five
1. D 2. I 3. E 4. G 5. J 6. C 7. H 8. B 9. A 10. F
1. The answer is no. ①As a social phenomenon, language is closely related to the structure of the society in which it is used, and the evaluation of a language or a variety of a language is entirely social. ②To the professional linguist, all language forms and accents are equally good, because they all fulfill the communicative function they are expected to fulfill and each of them has its own complex and delicate systems of grammatical rules and speech sounds. ③A certain variety of language appears to be superior to others maybe because the areas where that variety is spoken is economically or socially more influential, or because the variety is spoken by the class of people possessing higher social, political, and/or economical status.
2. In order to make his analysis scientific, a linguist is usually guided by four principles: exhaustiveness, consistency, economy and objectivity. Exhaustiveness means he should gather all the materials relevant to the study and give them an adequate explanation, in spite of the complicatedness. He is to leave no linguistic “stone” unturned. Consistency means there should be no contradiction between different parts of the total statement. Economy means a linguist should pursue brevity in the analysis when it is possible. Objectivity implies that since some people may be subjective in the study, a linguist should be (or sound at least) objective, faithful to reality.
3. The features that define human languages as against animal communication are generally called design features. The following are the frequently discussed ones. ①Arbitrariness, ② duality, ③ creativity, ④ displacement. (详见课件第一章1.2)
4. This fundamental distinction is made by Chomsky in his Aspects of the Theory of Syntax. According to him, competence is an ideal language user?s underlying knowledge about the system of rules of his language, and performance refers to the actual use of this knowledge in utterances that is produced in concrete situations. Competence enables a speaker to produce and understand an indefinite number of sentences and to recognize grammatical mistakes and ambiguities. A
考试不作弊，放你妈的屁，考试不翻书，简直是头猪，作弊不要慌，逮到就装漭！
speaker?s competence is stable while his performance is often influenced by psychological and social factors. So a speaker?s performance does not always match or equal his supposed competence. Chomsky believes that linguistics ought to study competence, rather than performance. In other words, they should discover what an ideal speaker knows about his native language.
5. The study of language itself as a whole is called general linguistics or microlinguistics. The branches of general linguistics study different aspects of language itself. They are phonetics, phonology, morphology, (lexicon), syntax and semantics. The studies of language in relation to other disciplines, such as psychology, sociology, etc belong to macrolinguistics. Branches of Macrolinguistics include psycholinguistics, sociolinguistics, computational linguistics, anthropological linguistics, applied linguistics, and so on. (可以有选择地说几个分枝，但要掌握各自定义)
6．While speech is the vocal/spoken form of language, writing is the written form of language. They belong to different systems though they may overlap. That speech is primary over writing is a general principle of linguistic analysis. First, speech existed long before writing systems came into being. Second, written forms just represent in this way or that the speech sounds. Third, genetically children learn to speak before learning to write. Everything considered, speech is believed to more representative of human language than writing. Most modern linguistic analysis is thus focused on speech, different from traditional grammar of the 19th century and therebefore. 7．Phone is a term used in phonetics to refer to the smallest perceptible discrete segment of sound in a stream of speech. Phones do not necessarily distinguish meaning. A phoneme is the minimal unit in the sound system of a language, according to traditional phonological theories; it is a unit that is of distinctive value. A phoneme is an abstract unit. It is not any particular sound, but rather it is represented or realized by a certain phone in a certain phonetic context. The phones that can represent a phoneme are called its allophones. For example, [p h] and [p=] are the allophones of the same phoneme /p/.
8. 详见课件Chapter 3, Part One, 第三点。
9. Immediate constituents refer to the constituents immediately, directly, below the level of a construction. Immediate constituent analysis, often shortened as IC Analysis, is an approach to the analysis of a sentence in terms of its immediate constituents --- word groups (or phrases), which are in turn analyzed into the immediate constituents of their own, and the process goes on until the smallest grammatical units in a construction, called ultimate constituents, are obtained through binary cuttings. One of the advantages of IC analysis lies in that it can clearly demonstrate the internal structure of a sentence so that structural ambiguities, if any, will be revealed. For example, employing IC analysis, we can clearly see that the phrase “more expensive clothes” is ambiguous in that it can be analyzed as (more (expensive clothes)) or as ((more expensive) clothes).
10. Whether and how to include grammar in second language instruction is one of the major controversial questions raised by second language acquisition researchers. At the present time it is generally agreed that grammar has its due value in language learning. The problem is we do not know enough about grammar, or even we do not agree on what grammar is. One possible reasons why grammar-based language learning and teaching fails are that no reliable model of grammar is
考试不作弊，放你妈的屁，考试不翻书，简直是头猪，作弊不要慌，逮到就装漭！
available, and that still no precise information is obtained concerning how grammar can be learned. In a word, the importance of linguistic study of grammar is self-evident. What we need is a better description of grammar.
V. ESSAY QUESTION. Develop the following topic into an essay of 150 to 220 words. Write your answer on the ANSWER SHEET. V. ESSAY QUESTION. Develop the following topic into an essay of 150 to 220 words. Write your answer on the ANSWER SHEET
1. ①When a second language learner uses a linguistic item in a way which fluent or native speakers of the language regards as showing faulty or incomplete learning, he is considered to have made an error. Usually, error is used as a cover term referring generally to the learner’s misuse of the target language, may it be grammatical or pragmatic, conscious or unconscious. ②The structuralist linguists follow the behavioristic view that to learn is to change old habits and build new habits. In their opinion errors occur when the learner fails to respond correctly to a particular stimulus in the second language. Since an error may serve as a negative stimulus which reinforces “bad habits”, it should not be allowed to occur. ③The post-structuralists regard errors as evidence of the learning process. By making hypothesis about the target language, the learner arrives at a particular interlanguage. Then he modifies his hypothesis and goes towards the target language. ④ Obviously, errors can be found at the stage of interlanguage. As stated by Corder (1967), errors are significant in the process of language teaching and learning.
2. According to the speech act theory, each utterance is produced with a certain illocutionary force, and at the same time, a speech act is performed in the name of that illocutionary force. For example, in producing “Get out of the room!”, the speaker performs a speech act of ordering. An indirect speech act is a speech act performed indirectly, that is through performing another kind of speech act. For example, people often indirectly perform the speech act of requesting through performing the speech act of questioning, as the mother does in the following conversation: Mother: Tommy, can you pass me the salt? Tom: Here you are. Mother: Thanks, honey.
Obviously, the mother here is not asking Tom whether he has the ability to pass her the salt; instead, she is making an indirect speech act, i.e. a request.
Indirect speech acts are often felt to be more polite ways of performing certain kinds of speech act, such as requests and refusals. 3.
4． According to Grice, when we speak we generally have something like the Cooperative Principle and its maxims in our mind to guide us, though sub-consciously, or even unconsciously. We will try to say things which are true, relevant, as well as informative enough, and in a clear manner. Hearers will also try to interpret what is said to them in this way. The CP and its maxims not always strictly observed. In blatant, apparent violations, the speaker deliberately violates some maxims and makes it clear to his hearers, yet at a deeper level the CP and its maxims are still thought, by both the speaker and his hearers, to be upheld.
考试不作弊，放你妈的屁，考试不翻书，简直是头猪，作弊不要慌，逮到就装漭！
When blatant, apparent violations of some maxims take place, what Grice terms “conversational implicatures” will arise. The following conversation illustrates the violation of the maxim of relation:
A: The hostess is an awful bore. Don?t you think so? B: The roses in the garden are beautiful, aren?t they?
B?s response is obviously not relevant to A?s question. The conversational implicature of B?s utterance is something like “I don?t want to talk about her” or “It is not proper to talk about her here and now.”
5. There exist types or varieties of the same one language, and they are assumed to be related both to the language user and to the use to which language is put. Varieties that are related to use are known as Registers. (According to Halliday, “Language varies as its function varies; it differs in different situations.” The type of language which is selected as appropriate to a type of situation is a register.) Halliday distinguishes three social variables that determine the register: field of discourse, tenor of discourse, and mode of discourse.
Field of discourse refers to what is going on: to the area of operation of the language activity. It is concerned with the purpose and subject-matter of communication. Tenor of discourse refers to the role of relationship in the situation in question: who the participants in the communication group are and in what relationship they stand to each other. Mode of discourse mainly refers to the means of communication. It is concerned with “how” communication is carried out. Fundamental to the mode of discourse is the distinction between speaking and wring.
The three variables are the features of the context of situation which determine the features of language appropriate to the situation, i.e. register. And they determine the register collectively, not piecemeal.