内蒙古科技大学毕业设计说明书（毕业论文）
参考文献
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[2] H.Ingensand，新数字水准仪技术及其应用[J].李以赫译，1997
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[14] 杨太秀．水准测量的误差来源及控制方法探析[J]．价值工程
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内蒙古科技大学毕业设计说明书（毕业论文）
[15] 李世平．包头钢铁学院论文[M]．
[16] 郑国才，高俊强，刘三枝，胡 灿．数字水准仪的测量原理及测试精度分析[J]．南京工业大学学报，2006年7月，第28卷第四期
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内蒙古科技大学毕业设计说明书（毕业论文）
附录
Distance Meaurement
One of the fundamentals of surveying is the need to measure distance. Distances are not necessarily linear, especially if they occur on the spherical earth. In the subject we will deal with distance in Euclidean space, which we can consider a straight line form one point or feature to another. Distance between two points can be horizontal, slope, or vertical. Horizontal and slope distance can be measured with lots of techniques of measurement depending on the desired quality of the result. In plane surveying, the distance between two points means the horizontal distance. If the points are at different elevations, then the distance is horizontal length between plumb lines at the points. Here gives a brief summary of relevant techniques and their respective accuracies. 1. Pacing and Odometer
Pacing is a very useful form of measurement though it is not precise, especially when surveyors are looking for survey marks in the field. Pacing can be performed at an accuracy level of 1/100～1/500 when performed on horizontal land, while the accuracy of pacing can’t be relied upon when pacing up or down steep hills. The odometer is a simple device that can be attached to any vehicle and directly registers the number of revolutions of a wheel. With the circumference of the wheel known, the relation between revolutions and distance is fixed. 2. Ordinary Taping and Precise Taping
Taping is a very common technique for measuring horizontal distance between two points. Ordinary taping refers to the very common tapes that we can buy them in stores, such as the plastic tapes or poly tapes. Such tapes have low precision in distance measurements with about
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内蒙古科技大学毕业设计说明书（毕业论文）
1/3000～1/5000. The precise taping refers to the steel tapes and which are mach more expensive than the plastic tape and have higher precision of 1/10000～1/30000. Invar tapes are composed of 35% nickel and 65% steel. This alloy has a very low coefficient of thermal expansion, making the tapes useful in precise distance measurement. Many tapes are now graduated with foot units on one side and metric units in the reverse side. Metric units are in meters, centimeter with the total length of 20 m, 30 m, 50 m and 100 m.
If we want to measure the horizontal distance between the two points A and B, we can do like this: With zero of the tape to the higher point B and tape going along the point A, we can measure the horizontal distance by using the plumb bob with pump line entering to the point A. To judge the exact horizontal line, we should move the tape up and down along the pump line and we will find the changes of reading in the tape. The shortest reading of the tape is the horizontal distance. If the distance is longer than the length of tape, then we can divide the long distance into several segments and get the total distance by plus each segment together. Since different tapes have different starts of zero of the tapes, it is very important to judge where the zero of the tape begins. 3. Tacheometry and Stadia
Tacheometry is an optical solution to the measurement of distance. The word is derived form the Greek Tacns, meaning “swift”, and metrot ,meaning “a measure”. Tacheometry involves the measurement of a related distance parameter either by means of a fixed-angle intercept. Theodolite tacheometry is an example of stadia system. The theodolite is directed at the level staff where the staff is held vertically and the line of sight of the telescope is horizontal. By reading the top and bottom stadia hairs on the telescope view and then the horizontal distance form center of instrument to rod can be obtained by multiplying the stadia
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内蒙古科技大学毕业设计说明书（毕业论文）
interval factor K by the stadia interval and plus the distance C which is form the center of instrument to principal pocus, i.e. D=Ks + C. Usually the nominal stadia interval factor K equals 100 which is a constant for a particular instrument as along as conditions remain unchanged, but it may be determined by observation in practice. The value of C is determined by the manufacturer and stated on the inside of the instrument box. For external-focusing telescopes, under ordinary condition, C may be considered as 1 ft without error of consequence. Internal-focusing telescopes are so constructed that C is 0 or nearly so; this is an advantage of internal-focusing telescopes for stadia work. Most instruments now used for stadia are equipped with internal-focusing telescopes.
Applications of tacheometry include traversing and leveling for the topographic surveys, location of detail surveys, leveling and field completion surveys for the topographic mapping, and hydrographic mapping. The relative precision is 1:1000 to 1:5000.
Stadia is a form of tacheometry that uses a telescopic cross-hair configuration to assist in determining distances. A series of rod reading is taken with a theodolite and the resultant intervals are used to determine distances. 4. Electronic Distance Measurement(EDM)
The Electronic Distance Measurement (EDM) was first introduced in 1950s by the founders of Geodimeter Inc. The advent of EDM instrument has completely revolutionized all surveying procedures, resulting in a change of emphasis and technique. Distance can now be measured easily, quickly and with great accuracy, regardless of terrain conditions.
EDM instruments refer to the distance measurement equipments using light and radio waves. Both light waves and radio waves are electromagnetic. They have identical velocities in a vacuum (or space) to 299,792.458±0.001km/sec. These velocities, which are affected by the
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