1）过程的转换（process transformation）
及物性(transitivity)
a. On the fifth day, they arrived at the summit.
b. The fifth day saw them at the summit.
The bomb exploded on Tuesday.
This is the congruent适合的，相合的，一致的 mode of representation as the typical way in which the experience is construed.
Tuesday witnessed the explosion of the bomb.
in the second version which may be called as the “incongruent” the process is represented as a mental process“witnessed”.
2)词汇语法的转换 (lexical transformation)
包括被动化和名词化。名词化指说话者把本来可以用动词结构或句子表达的内容用名词性成分表达。
Nominalization: the use of a nominal form to express a process meaning.
eg,Those ideas have been subject to widespread criticism. Many people have criticized the ideas.
Nominalization can also be used to express an attributive
meaning.- a relational process together with the attribute: Eg.The ambivalence towards literacy seems to be a strong element in contemporary culture. People are ambivalent towards literacy.
A verb has a subject, but a noun does not. Yet a noun can have attributes.A process is expressed as a “thing”--- meaning
condensation:They ignored his suggestion that it is too late.>He suggested that it is too late.
----objectivity:to be expressed without the doer
----generalization: nominalised processes are non-finite: they are not tied to any specific time—subject and finite disappear,thus it is detached from the here-and- now which is impossible for a verb process ___generalized > academic writing to establish general truths
使用名词性成分替代动词性结构能有效削弱语篇的动作感。“名词化将过程和活动转化为状态和物体，将具体事物变为抽象事物”。名词化通过删除情态成分，模糊事件概念和掩饰过程的参加者即因果关系和行为者等创造一种非人际化的效果，使受众的注意力集中在受动者和动作，为掩饰因果关系和行为者提供方便。请看以下两则标题：
a.IBM closes factory. Workers protest.
b.Workers attack closure of factory.
标题a中，IBM位于句首，是施动者。这表明IBM
在这一事件中是主要责任者。因为IBM关闭工厂才