第二章
1.美国的法学教育制度和类型。
在美国可研读比较法硕士（MCL）、法律硕士（LL.M.）,非法律系毕业而入法学院攻读法律三年的法律博士(J.D.) 等。
如欲求得更高学位，可以攻读法学博（SJD），法律哲学博士（Ph.D） 或对法律学术有贡献的学者，美国法学院颁发的法学博士（LL.D）。
J.D.在美国为专业学位，毕业后可以参加各州的律师资格考试，律师考试通过后，可以作执业律师或如司法系统出任检察官、法官等。
2.美国的律师制度
法律执业者也要面临律师执业全球化（legal practice is globalizing）的新发展。
如何环境和条件允许的话，寻求英美法（普通法）国家的律师资格也是法律人在规划生涯时的可能选项之一。
美国律师的录取率非常之高。 J.D.毕业后,可在美国各州参加律师资格考试,虽然各州考试的宽严不同,但录取率大都在75%到85%之间。
3.英国及英联邦国家的律师资格
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英国律师分为出庭律师或称大律师（Barrister）及不出庭律师（Solicitor）两种。
英国的四大律师学院： The Inner Temple, The Middle Temple, The Lincoln’s Inn 和Gray’s Inn.
英国大律师的资格如何取得？
学员在律师学院毕业取得大律师资格后，还不能立即执业，必须到其他资深大律师(Senior Barrister) 的事务所中实习6个月至1年方可正式执业大律师工作。
英国法官的任命
在英国四大律师学院取得大律师资格的学员均可在其他英联邦的成员国家和地区中得到承认及执业
英国大律师在社会上工作十年以上，人格风评均佳者，可申请为Q.C.(Queen’s Counsel)或K.C(King’s Counsel)的称号。法院法官一旦出缺，司法部将会从这些Q.C.中选择适当的人士出任英国各级法院的法官。
（一）I, —————— ,swear by Almighty God that I will at all times and in all things do equal justice to the poor and to the rich and discharge the duties of my office according to law and to the best of my knowledge and ability without fear favour or affection.
（二） The Substance of Oath Taken by a Justice of The Supreme Court of Victoria, AustraliaDevelopment of the Two Major Legal
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Systems
Development of Civil Law
（三） Civil Law, or code law, is one of two major legal systems currently in use in the Western world. It is based primarily on the written codes of Justinian and Napoleon. The predominant feature of civil law is the attempt to establish a body of legal rules in one systematized code, a single comprehensive legislative enactment.
（四） In this system, judicial decisions, case law, are not a source of law, although judicial precedents may be useful in the decision of cases. Civil law remains the basis of the legal system in Italy, France, Spain, Germany, and other parts of the Western world that were once included in the Roman Empire.
Development of Common Law
（五）One country did not follow the comprehensive code approach to law. In England, disputes were resolved on a case-by-case basis, binding the arbiter of a dispute to the rule elicited from the determination of an earlier, similar dispute—hence common law. Common law is the second of the two major legal systems currently in use in the Western world.
（六）Today England ( together with the United States and other former British colonies, including Canada, Australia, and New Zealand)
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follows the common law. An understanding of the concepts underlying the common law of England is thus vital to any discussion of American law, including American business law. Sir William Blackstone’s Commentaries, published just before the American Revolution, are generally considered to be the best statement of English common law as it existed when the United States became an independent nation.
（七）According to Blackstone, the common law is that “ancient collection of unwritten maxims and customs” which have “ subsisted immemorially in this kingdom.” These principles are revealed by the courts of law “though experience in the rendering of judicial decisions,” Common law is, therefore, the overall accumulation of judicial decisions, known as case law.
英美法中的遵循先例原则
以前法院判决成案例被作为一种法源（source of law）以便对未来类似法律发生纠纷作判决的准绳。通过如此诉讼程序而发展出来的法律被叫做判例法、法官造法以及普通法。
法官在其审判过程中所说的每一句话都具有拘束力或者都构成具权威性的判决先例（persuasive precedent）。法院判决中具有拘束力要件的判决被称为“判决原理”（ratio decidendi）。
“判决原理”（ratio decidendi）
法院判决中具有拘束力要件的判决被称为“判决原理”（ratio
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decidendi）。 英国法理学大家Rupert Cross 描述判决原理时说：“法官在作出其判决过程结论中被视为必要步骤的明示或暗示的法律原则。该规则已经被法官采纳以支持其推理过程，或者是其对陪审团所发指令的必要组成部分所得到的结果。”
以澳大利亚为例，像英国一样，一个法院的判决对法院等级系统中所有位阶在其下的法院都具有拘束力。
英国法院判决的重要性有多大，可由作出该判决法院的地位高低来决定。在英国法院层级中位置越高，其做出的判决便越具有权威性。
在澳大利亚，法院一般不需要严格遵循自己法院作出的判决，不过在实务中，只有某法院的先前判决被认定存在法律上错误的时候，该法院才能推翻自己先前所做成先例的判决。
第四章
Translate the following sentences into chinese 1.Absolute power corrupts absolutely.
2.Good order is the foundation of all things. 3.Ignorance of law excuses no one.
4.In a healthy legal system the values of order and justice are not normally at cross-purposes.
5.It is an important step to replace the rule of men with the rule of law in China’s justice reforms.
6.No man should benefit from his own injustice.
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